Pavlov's classic experiments on classical conditioning demonstrated that organisms can learn to associate neutral stimuli with biologically significant stimuli, as when his dogs learned to salivate to a tone that predicted food. Later research expanded on Pavlov's work to show the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in conditioning, and that conditioning principles can help explain diverse phenomena like drug addiction, immune responses, phobias, and advertising effectiveness. Pavlov's work established classical conditioning as a fundamental form of learning and influenced the development of behaviorism.
Krashens theory of language learning (1).pdfTausifMasud1
Stephen Krashen developed a theory of language acquisition consisting of five main hypotheses: 1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, 2) the monitor hypothesis explains that learning serves as an editor but overuse can inhibit acquisition, 3) the natural order hypothesis proposes that acquisition follows a natural progression, 4) the input hypothesis claims we acquire via comprehensible input just beyond our level, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis argues that factors like anxiety can block acquisition. Krashen's theory transformed language teaching in the 1980s and remains influential in second language acquisition theory today.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist, discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs. He found that dogs deprived of food would salivate when his assistant entered the room. Through further investigation, Pavlov established that a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce a response through repeated pairing with another stimulus that does elicit a response. Classical conditioning involves an unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Gestalt LEARNING THEORY SULTAN THE MONKEYMurat Turk
Gestalt psychology studies perception and proposes that individuals are active learners who restructure information rather than passively collecting it. The key principles of Gestalt psychology are proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, good pragnanz (simplicity), and figure/ground. Wolfgang Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insight learning, where apes were able to solve problems by coordinating their thinking to create new solutions. Gestalt principles influence both perception and learning. Kurt Lewin's life space theory adhered to Gestalt psychology and proposed that inner motivations and outer forces like teachers and peers impact perception and learning.
Behaviorism is a worldview that believes all human behavior can be explained through stimulus-response associations without consideration of internal mental states. Key behaviorist theorists include Ivan Pavlov, who studied classical conditioning in dogs, B.F. Skinner, who developed the theory of operant conditioning through experiments with animals and reinforcement, and Albert Bandura, who found that behavior can be learned through observation and not just direct rewards and punishments. Behaviorism had implications for education, suggesting student behavior and learning could be shaped through positive and negative reinforcement in the classroom.
The document discusses operant conditioning, which is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner. It states that operant conditioning occurs when behaviors are reinforced or punished, which then increases or decreases the likelihood of those behaviors reoccurring. Specifically, it discusses how Skinner used positive reinforcement by giving rats food for pressing a lever, and negative reinforcement by stopping an electric shock for rats when they pressed a lever. The document then provides examples of how positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment can be applied to behaviors.
The document summarizes key aspects of the behaviorist learning theory, including the work of Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning, John Watson's experiments on conditioning fear in children, and B.F. Skinner's research on operant conditioning using positive reinforcement. Behaviorism views learning as occurring through conditioning of behaviors in response to environmental stimuli and does not consider internal mental states. The theory influenced early classroom practices through use of reward systems but is limited in explaining higher-level thinking.
B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning based on Edward Thorndike's law of effect. Operant conditioning is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are strengthened if followed by reinforcement or weakened if followed by punishment. Skinner used operant chambers to study how animals learn through consequences. Different reinforcement schedules, like continuous or partial reinforcement, produce different learning and performance rates. Accidental reinforcement can also cause superstitious behaviors. Punishment should only be used under certain circumstances. Operant conditioning principles can be applied to areas like education, work, and parenting.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two types of learning. Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response. Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency and behaviors followed by punishment decrease. Both types of learning shape behavior through repeated experiences and associations.
Krashens theory of language learning (1).pdfTausifMasud1
Stephen Krashen developed a theory of language acquisition consisting of five main hypotheses: 1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, 2) the monitor hypothesis explains that learning serves as an editor but overuse can inhibit acquisition, 3) the natural order hypothesis proposes that acquisition follows a natural progression, 4) the input hypothesis claims we acquire via comprehensible input just beyond our level, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis argues that factors like anxiety can block acquisition. Krashen's theory transformed language teaching in the 1980s and remains influential in second language acquisition theory today.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist, discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs. He found that dogs deprived of food would salivate when his assistant entered the room. Through further investigation, Pavlov established that a stimulus that initially produces no response can acquire the ability to produce a response through repeated pairing with another stimulus that does elicit a response. Classical conditioning involves an unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Gestalt LEARNING THEORY SULTAN THE MONKEYMurat Turk
Gestalt psychology studies perception and proposes that individuals are active learners who restructure information rather than passively collecting it. The key principles of Gestalt psychology are proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, good pragnanz (simplicity), and figure/ground. Wolfgang Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insight learning, where apes were able to solve problems by coordinating their thinking to create new solutions. Gestalt principles influence both perception and learning. Kurt Lewin's life space theory adhered to Gestalt psychology and proposed that inner motivations and outer forces like teachers and peers impact perception and learning.
Behaviorism is a worldview that believes all human behavior can be explained through stimulus-response associations without consideration of internal mental states. Key behaviorist theorists include Ivan Pavlov, who studied classical conditioning in dogs, B.F. Skinner, who developed the theory of operant conditioning through experiments with animals and reinforcement, and Albert Bandura, who found that behavior can be learned through observation and not just direct rewards and punishments. Behaviorism had implications for education, suggesting student behavior and learning could be shaped through positive and negative reinforcement in the classroom.
The document discusses operant conditioning, which is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner. It states that operant conditioning occurs when behaviors are reinforced or punished, which then increases or decreases the likelihood of those behaviors reoccurring. Specifically, it discusses how Skinner used positive reinforcement by giving rats food for pressing a lever, and negative reinforcement by stopping an electric shock for rats when they pressed a lever. The document then provides examples of how positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment can be applied to behaviors.
The document summarizes key aspects of the behaviorist learning theory, including the work of Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning, John Watson's experiments on conditioning fear in children, and B.F. Skinner's research on operant conditioning using positive reinforcement. Behaviorism views learning as occurring through conditioning of behaviors in response to environmental stimuli and does not consider internal mental states. The theory influenced early classroom practices through use of reward systems but is limited in explaining higher-level thinking.
B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning based on Edward Thorndike's law of effect. Operant conditioning is a learning process where voluntary behaviors are strengthened if followed by reinforcement or weakened if followed by punishment. Skinner used operant chambers to study how animals learn through consequences. Different reinforcement schedules, like continuous or partial reinforcement, produce different learning and performance rates. Accidental reinforcement can also cause superstitious behaviors. Punishment should only be used under certain circumstances. Operant conditioning principles can be applied to areas like education, work, and parenting.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two types of learning. Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response. Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency and behaviors followed by punishment decrease. Both types of learning shape behavior through repeated experiences and associations.
The document discusses several influential psychologists and their theories, including Ivan Pavlov and his work on classical conditioning using dogs, John B. Watson who believed environment shapes behavior and conducted experiments on conditioning in infants, and B.F. Skinner who introduced the theory of operant conditioning and used Skinner boxes to study reinforcement. It also mentions Edward Thorndike's law of effect and Ivan Sechenov and his studies on reflexes in the brain.
Behaviorism is based on three key ideas:
1) Behavior is determined by external stimuli in one's environment.
2) Behavior can be observed and predicted over time.
3) Desirable behaviors can be encouraged through rewards while undesirable behaviors can be discouraged through consequences or punishment.
B.F. Skinner was an influential American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism. Behaviorism views human behavior as responses to environmental stimuli and is learned through reinforcement or punishment. Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by consequences and that understanding behavior means examining relationships between actions and their effects. Key aspects of Skinner's theory included operant conditioning, the use of reinforcement to increase behaviors, and the view that language is learned through parental positive reinforcement of children's vocalizations. While behaviorism was influential, Skinner's theories were also criticized for overgeneralizing from limited experiments and not explaining more complex behaviors.
The information processing theory views the human mind as similar to a computer in how it processes information. It proposes that new information enters through the senses and is analyzed before being stored in memory. The theory sees the sensory systems as the hardware and mental rules/strategies as the software that can be enhanced. Information processing involves receiving input through the senses or sensory store, processing it briefly in the short term store, rehearsing it to encode it into long term memory, and later retrieving it from long term memory. This cognitive model of learning informed theories of how consumers acquire, store, and recall product information.
Behaviorist theory believes all behavior is learned through stimulus-response and shaped by reinforcement or punishment. B.F. Skinner's work in operant conditioning showed that behavior is influenced by environmental factors. Positive reinforcement uses rewards to increase a behavior. Negative reinforcement decreases an unpleasant behavior. Punishment decreases an undesirable behavior by introducing an adverse stimulus or removing a positive one. Behaviorists aim to determine effective reinforcements and punishments for students through consistency and timing responses close to behaviors.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses definitions of educational psychology over time and defines it today as the study of learning and development in educational settings. Major theories of learning covered include classical and operant conditioning, and theories are discussed like Thorndike's law of effect and trial-and-error learning. Student variables that influence learning are also introduced, like individual versus group learning styles. Theories and concepts are explained through examples and implications for teaching are outlined.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development emphasizes the crucial influence that social interactions and language have on cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, higher mental functions are co-constructed through shared activities between a child and more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, or peers. This co-construction occurs through social and cultural tools like language, which then become internalized by the child. Vygotsky also studied private speech, or self-talk, which guides children's thinking and actions and eventually becomes internalized as silent inner speech.
The Gestalt Theory proposes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It focuses on studying phenomenological experience as a whole rather than its individual parts. According to Gestalt psychologists, our perception organizes sensory elements into meaningful wholes or "Gestalten" based on principles like proximity, similarity, closure and figure-ground perception. This holistic approach to learning across subjects aims to make concepts more coherent and meaningful for learners.
Gestalt theory proposes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It was developed in the early 20th century by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka who argued that learning involves actively organizing and making sense of information rather than passively receiving it. The Gestalt laws of perception describe how humans naturally perceive visual elements as grouped patterns and shapes.
Operant conditioning outlines key concepts including Thorndike's law of effect where behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and negative outcomes weakened. It discusses Thorndike's experiments showing stimulus-response learning and Skinner's extension of operant conditioning where consequences reinforce or punish behaviors. The document contrasts reinforcement and punishment types and covers generalization, discrimination, and extinction in operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning : Behavioral theory (B.F.SKINNER THEORY)AMME SANDHU
Operant conditioning is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner that focuses on how voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on positive and negative consequences. Key aspects of operant conditioning include shaping behavior through reinforcement of closer approximations, extinction of behaviors when reinforcers are withheld, and spontaneous recovery of behaviors when removed from extinction. Reinforcers can be positive or negative and immediate or delayed. Different reinforcement schedules like fixed ratio and variable interval impact behaviors differently. While punishment can decrease behaviors, it has disadvantages and reinforcement is generally a better strategy for behavior change. Operant conditioning principles are applied in behavior modification programs and to enhance performance in sports, work, and other domains.
Gestalt psychology studies how people perceive whole forms and patterns. Key theorists like Kohler, Wertheimer, and Koffka believed perception is an active process influenced by past experiences. They identified principles like proximity, similarity, closure, and simplicity that guide how we perceive grouped objects. Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insight learning, where subjects solved problems by suddenly understanding solutions rather than gradual reinforcement. Gestalt principles not only influence perception but also learning, with inner drives and outer social forces shaping an individual's understanding.
1. Classical conditioning theories by Pavlov and Watson are discussed. Pavlov's dog experiment showed that a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus can elicit a conditioned response.
2. Watson's experiment on "Little Albert" demonstrated emotional conditioning by pairing a white mouse with a loud noise, causing the child to fear the mouse.
3. Implications for teaching include using positive reinforcement to condition desirable behaviors and relating concepts systematically to help students learn and generalize skills.
behavioral theory formed the basis of most of the learning theory applied in child rearing and in classrooms. Parents and teachers still find that, in many instances, individuals do learn when provided with the appropriate blend of stimuli, rewards, negative reinforcement, and punishments. Especially with small children and simpler tasks, behavioral principles are often effective.
Eventually, however, educators began to feel that although stimulus-response does explain many human behaviors and has a legitimate place in instruction, behaviorism alone was not sufficient to explain all the phenomena observed in learning situations. The teacher’s are able to use this approach but they have to consider about the weaknesses and try to solve the weaknesses.
The document discusses several major schools of thought in the history of psychology. It describes that structuralism was founded by Wilhelm Wundt who established the first psychology lab in Germany and aimed to identify basic mental elements. This was followed by functionalism led by William James who believed psychology should study the functions of the mind. Behaviorism emerged with John Watson and B.F. Skinner who argued psychology should focus only on observable behavior and learning through consequences.
Memory works through encoding, storage, and retrieval according to an information processing model. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then long-term memory, though more recent models recognize additional processing in working memory and some automatic processing into long-term memory. Memories can be formed through effortful, explicit processing or implicit, automatic processing. Encoding involves strategies like chunking, mnemonics, rehearsal, deep processing, and relating information to oneself. Memories are stored throughout the brain in overlapping neural networks rather than isolated locations. Explicit and implicit memories are processed in different brain areas, and emotions can strengthen memory formation through the amygdala. Retrieval is affected
This document discusses Gestalt psychology and its principles and relevance to teaching and learning. It provides an overview of Gestalt psychology, describing it as focusing on how the mind forms unified perceptions out of incomplete sensory information. It outlines several key Gestalt principles of proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, and figure/ground. It also discusses insights from Gestalt psychologist Kohler's experiments with apes solving problems through insight rather than reinforcement. Finally, it notes how Gestalt principles and theories like Lewin's life space theory can influence both perception and learning in educational contexts.
The document discusses various theories of learning, including:
- Non-associative learning (habituation, sensitization) vs. associative learning (classical and instrumental conditioning)
- Classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov showing that a neutral stimulus can become associated with an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairing
- Instrumental or operant conditioning experiments by Skinner showing that behaviors are reinforced or weakened by their consequences
- Cognitive learning involves understanding cause-and-effect relationships through mental strategies like mapping internal representations
Learning theories provide frameworks for understanding how human and animal behavior is acquired and changed through experience.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
The document discusses several influential psychologists and their theories, including Ivan Pavlov and his work on classical conditioning using dogs, John B. Watson who believed environment shapes behavior and conducted experiments on conditioning in infants, and B.F. Skinner who introduced the theory of operant conditioning and used Skinner boxes to study reinforcement. It also mentions Edward Thorndike's law of effect and Ivan Sechenov and his studies on reflexes in the brain.
Behaviorism is based on three key ideas:
1) Behavior is determined by external stimuli in one's environment.
2) Behavior can be observed and predicted over time.
3) Desirable behaviors can be encouraged through rewards while undesirable behaviors can be discouraged through consequences or punishment.
B.F. Skinner was an influential American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism. Behaviorism views human behavior as responses to environmental stimuli and is learned through reinforcement or punishment. Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by consequences and that understanding behavior means examining relationships between actions and their effects. Key aspects of Skinner's theory included operant conditioning, the use of reinforcement to increase behaviors, and the view that language is learned through parental positive reinforcement of children's vocalizations. While behaviorism was influential, Skinner's theories were also criticized for overgeneralizing from limited experiments and not explaining more complex behaviors.
The information processing theory views the human mind as similar to a computer in how it processes information. It proposes that new information enters through the senses and is analyzed before being stored in memory. The theory sees the sensory systems as the hardware and mental rules/strategies as the software that can be enhanced. Information processing involves receiving input through the senses or sensory store, processing it briefly in the short term store, rehearsing it to encode it into long term memory, and later retrieving it from long term memory. This cognitive model of learning informed theories of how consumers acquire, store, and recall product information.
Behaviorist theory believes all behavior is learned through stimulus-response and shaped by reinforcement or punishment. B.F. Skinner's work in operant conditioning showed that behavior is influenced by environmental factors. Positive reinforcement uses rewards to increase a behavior. Negative reinforcement decreases an unpleasant behavior. Punishment decreases an undesirable behavior by introducing an adverse stimulus or removing a positive one. Behaviorists aim to determine effective reinforcements and punishments for students through consistency and timing responses close to behaviors.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses definitions of educational psychology over time and defines it today as the study of learning and development in educational settings. Major theories of learning covered include classical and operant conditioning, and theories are discussed like Thorndike's law of effect and trial-and-error learning. Student variables that influence learning are also introduced, like individual versus group learning styles. Theories and concepts are explained through examples and implications for teaching are outlined.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development emphasizes the crucial influence that social interactions and language have on cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, higher mental functions are co-constructed through shared activities between a child and more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, or peers. This co-construction occurs through social and cultural tools like language, which then become internalized by the child. Vygotsky also studied private speech, or self-talk, which guides children's thinking and actions and eventually becomes internalized as silent inner speech.
The Gestalt Theory proposes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It focuses on studying phenomenological experience as a whole rather than its individual parts. According to Gestalt psychologists, our perception organizes sensory elements into meaningful wholes or "Gestalten" based on principles like proximity, similarity, closure and figure-ground perception. This holistic approach to learning across subjects aims to make concepts more coherent and meaningful for learners.
Gestalt theory proposes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. It was developed in the early 20th century by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka who argued that learning involves actively organizing and making sense of information rather than passively receiving it. The Gestalt laws of perception describe how humans naturally perceive visual elements as grouped patterns and shapes.
Operant conditioning outlines key concepts including Thorndike's law of effect where behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and negative outcomes weakened. It discusses Thorndike's experiments showing stimulus-response learning and Skinner's extension of operant conditioning where consequences reinforce or punish behaviors. The document contrasts reinforcement and punishment types and covers generalization, discrimination, and extinction in operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning : Behavioral theory (B.F.SKINNER THEORY)AMME SANDHU
Operant conditioning is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner that focuses on how voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on positive and negative consequences. Key aspects of operant conditioning include shaping behavior through reinforcement of closer approximations, extinction of behaviors when reinforcers are withheld, and spontaneous recovery of behaviors when removed from extinction. Reinforcers can be positive or negative and immediate or delayed. Different reinforcement schedules like fixed ratio and variable interval impact behaviors differently. While punishment can decrease behaviors, it has disadvantages and reinforcement is generally a better strategy for behavior change. Operant conditioning principles are applied in behavior modification programs and to enhance performance in sports, work, and other domains.
Gestalt psychology studies how people perceive whole forms and patterns. Key theorists like Kohler, Wertheimer, and Koffka believed perception is an active process influenced by past experiences. They identified principles like proximity, similarity, closure, and simplicity that guide how we perceive grouped objects. Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insight learning, where subjects solved problems by suddenly understanding solutions rather than gradual reinforcement. Gestalt principles not only influence perception but also learning, with inner drives and outer social forces shaping an individual's understanding.
1. Classical conditioning theories by Pavlov and Watson are discussed. Pavlov's dog experiment showed that a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus can elicit a conditioned response.
2. Watson's experiment on "Little Albert" demonstrated emotional conditioning by pairing a white mouse with a loud noise, causing the child to fear the mouse.
3. Implications for teaching include using positive reinforcement to condition desirable behaviors and relating concepts systematically to help students learn and generalize skills.
behavioral theory formed the basis of most of the learning theory applied in child rearing and in classrooms. Parents and teachers still find that, in many instances, individuals do learn when provided with the appropriate blend of stimuli, rewards, negative reinforcement, and punishments. Especially with small children and simpler tasks, behavioral principles are often effective.
Eventually, however, educators began to feel that although stimulus-response does explain many human behaviors and has a legitimate place in instruction, behaviorism alone was not sufficient to explain all the phenomena observed in learning situations. The teacher’s are able to use this approach but they have to consider about the weaknesses and try to solve the weaknesses.
The document discusses several major schools of thought in the history of psychology. It describes that structuralism was founded by Wilhelm Wundt who established the first psychology lab in Germany and aimed to identify basic mental elements. This was followed by functionalism led by William James who believed psychology should study the functions of the mind. Behaviorism emerged with John Watson and B.F. Skinner who argued psychology should focus only on observable behavior and learning through consequences.
Memory works through encoding, storage, and retrieval according to an information processing model. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory and then long-term memory, though more recent models recognize additional processing in working memory and some automatic processing into long-term memory. Memories can be formed through effortful, explicit processing or implicit, automatic processing. Encoding involves strategies like chunking, mnemonics, rehearsal, deep processing, and relating information to oneself. Memories are stored throughout the brain in overlapping neural networks rather than isolated locations. Explicit and implicit memories are processed in different brain areas, and emotions can strengthen memory formation through the amygdala. Retrieval is affected
This document discusses Gestalt psychology and its principles and relevance to teaching and learning. It provides an overview of Gestalt psychology, describing it as focusing on how the mind forms unified perceptions out of incomplete sensory information. It outlines several key Gestalt principles of proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, and figure/ground. It also discusses insights from Gestalt psychologist Kohler's experiments with apes solving problems through insight rather than reinforcement. Finally, it notes how Gestalt principles and theories like Lewin's life space theory can influence both perception and learning in educational contexts.
The document discusses various theories of learning, including:
- Non-associative learning (habituation, sensitization) vs. associative learning (classical and instrumental conditioning)
- Classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov showing that a neutral stimulus can become associated with an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairing
- Instrumental or operant conditioning experiments by Skinner showing that behaviors are reinforced or weakened by their consequences
- Cognitive learning involves understanding cause-and-effect relationships through mental strategies like mapping internal representations
Learning theories provide frameworks for understanding how human and animal behavior is acquired and changed through experience.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
Learning is the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience or practice that results in relatively permanent changes to behavior. There are two main types of learning:
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response. Operant conditioning involves changing behavior through reinforcement or punishment in response to the consequences of an action.
Learning is the acquisition and development of knowledge and behaviors through experience or education. It results in relatively permanent changes in behavior. Classical conditioning is a form of learning where a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response, resulting in the neutral stimulus also producing the response. The process involves an unconditioned stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response, and through repeated pairing, a previously neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response.
1) The study aimed to apply Pavlovian classical conditioning to everyday life in the Mizo population. Participants were shown a demonstration of Pavlovian conditioning and asked to provide examples from their own lives.
2) Several participants provided examples of learned associations forming between neutral stimuli and responses in daily routines, such as feeling hungry at 12:00pm from eating lunch daily at that time in university or expecting food upon hearing a bell that preceded meals at a hostel.
3) The investigator found that classical conditioning can be observed in everyday experiences across cultures, as the participants demonstrated conditioned responses to previously neutral stimuli without conscious awareness of the learned associations.
This document summarizes different theories and experiments on how learning occurs. It discusses classical conditioning by Pavlov and operant conditioning by Skinner. It also covers observational learning through Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Later sections extend these theories by considering cognition, biological constraints, and real-world applications of conditioning principles.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential that results from experience. It became a major focus of study in psychology in the early 20th century with the rise of behaviorism. Maturation is a developmental process that brings about changes in a person over time through coping with emotional situations, rather than just physical aging. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, as shown in Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment which conditioned a fear response in the infant.
Classical conditioning is a learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a new conditioned response. Pavlov's famous experiment involved ringing a bell before giving dogs food, causing the dogs to salivate in response to the bell alone. Classical conditioning involves three stages: before conditioning where the unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response, during conditioning where the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, and after conditioning where the now conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. This theory has implications for understanding reward, punishment, language learning, removing superstitions, developing attitudes, and using audiovisual aids in education.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are two main types of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, like Pavlov's dog experiment, while operant conditioning involves associating behaviors with consequences through reinforcement or punishment, as in Skinner's experiments. Both types of learning are important and observations also influence learning through imitation of models.
1. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational/social learning.
2. In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate stimuli through processes like Pavlov's dog experiment. In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences, as shown through Skinner's experiments with reinforcement and punishment.
3. Observational learning involves learning new behaviors by watching others, as demonstrated by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment where children imitated an adult's aggressive behavior toward the doll.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state arising from experience. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through repeated pairing, such as Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a bell. Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviors are reinforced or punished to increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence. Reinforcers that immediately follow a behavior are most effective at shaping learning. Cognitive factors like latent learning and observational learning also influence the learning process.
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and reactions to stimuli rather than internal mental states. Some key contributors to behaviorism include Ivan Pavlov, who discovered classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs; John B. Watson, who established behaviorism as a scientific approach and conducted experiments on conditioning with infants; and Edward Thorndike, who formulated the law of effect and conducted puzzle box experiments on animal learning. Behaviorism became a dominant approach in psychology from the 1920s through the 1950s and focused on stimulus-response learning through conditioning.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior or understanding that result from experience. There are two main types of learning - classical conditioning, where organisms learn to associate stimuli through repeated pairings, and operant conditioning, where behavior is modified by its consequences. Both types involve cognitive processes and can be influenced by observation, reinforcement schedules, attention, and other factors. Research on learning principles can help improve teaching methods and skill acquisition.
Learnind theory and its implications in psychiatryNayab Anjum
learning theory consists of classical conditioning theories, operant conditioning ,cognitive conditioning, and these theories gives background for cognitive behavior therapies. Also new concept of mirror neurons are described which gives wide views on autism spectrum disorders, empathy and emotions.
Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli. It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his experiments with dogs where he found they learned to associate food with the presence of stimuli like a bell. There are different types of classical conditioning including delay, trace, and simultaneous conditioning which vary based on the timing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, involves reinforcement and punishment to modify behavior. Reinforcers like food increase behaviors while punishers decrease them. Shaping uses reinforcement to gradually modify behaviors towards a target behavior through successive approximations.
Principles and Applications of Classical and operant conditioningppt.pptxsarahfauzna
Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli and responses. Ivan Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs demonstrated this, showing that dogs could associate the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) with the delivery of food (unconditioned stimulus) and learn to salivate in response to the bell alone. Three key principles of classical conditioning are acquisition, where the association is formed; extinction, where the response weakens without reinforcement; and spontaneous recovery, where an extinguished response briefly returns. Stimulus generalization also occurs, where similar stimuli to the original conditioned stimulus can elicit the same response.
- The unconditioned stimulus naturally elicits an unconditioned response. Pavlov's research involved dogs salivating in response to food.
- Through repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus (like a bell) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the neutral stimulus takes on the properties of a conditioned stimulus that comes to elicit the same response (salivation) as the unconditioned stimulus.
- Classical conditioning involves learning the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus/response through repeated exposure.
This document provides an overview of learning concepts from a psychology course. It defines learning and describes the key types of learning - classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning is based on consequences influencing behavior - reinforcement increases a behavior while punishment decreases it. Examples are given of classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov and Watson, as well as B.F. Skinner's research on operant conditioning using positive and negative reinforcement in operant chambers.
Mod 31 contemporary perspectives on personalityTina Medley
The Big Five Inventory (BFI) is a 44-item questionnaire used to assess an individual across five broad dimensions of personality: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree with statements describing various traits and behaviors associated with the Big Five factors on a 5-point scale. The BFI aims to provide a comprehensive yet concise measure of an individual's standing on the major dimensions of personality.
Mod 30 classic perspectives on personalityTina Medley
This document provides an overview of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic perspective on personality. It discusses key concepts in Freud's theory such as the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages of development, and defense mechanisms. The document also examines Freud's model of the mind as consisting of the id, ego, and superego. Additionally, it evaluates some of the criticisms of Freud's psychosexual stages theory and discusses how his concepts relate to statements in a survey about personality.
Observational learning is an important way that humans and other animals learn new behaviors and skills. Key points:
1) Studies by Bandura and others showed that children imitate behaviors they observe in others, whether prosocial or antisocial behaviors.
2) Mirror neurons in the brain help explain how observational learning works on a neural level.
3) Research also links viewing media violence with increased aggression in children, though parental monitoring can reduce these harmful effects.
Skinner's experiments with operant conditioning extended Thorndike's law of effect. Using an operant chamber (Skinner box), Skinner studied how behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. Reinforcers like food increase behaviors, while punishers decrease them. Schedules of reinforcement also impact behaviors. Operant conditioning involves cognition, as rats in mazes seem to develop cognitive maps. Skinner's work influenced understanding of learning but also received some criticism for not acknowledging cognition and inner mental processes fully. His research legacy advanced the field of psychology.
This document provides an overview of the other human senses beyond sight: hearing, touch, pain, taste, smell, and body position/movement. It describes the key components and mechanisms of each sense, including sound waves and the ear for hearing, pressure receptors and nerve fibers for touch, the gate control theory of pain, the four basic tastes detected by taste buds, odor molecules and receptors for smell, and sensors in muscles and joints and the inner ear for balance and body awareness. The relationships between senses are also discussed, such as how smell can strongly influence memories and flavor is a combination of taste, smell, and texture.
The document discusses several key aspects of adolescent development including:
1) Physical changes during puberty include development of primary and secondary sex characteristics as well as attainment of reproductive maturity.
2) Cognitive development involves improvements in abstract thinking, reasoning, and perspective taking abilities due to frontal lobe maturation, though teenage behavior can still be impulsive due to relatively slower limbic system development.
3) Social and identity development involves distancing from parents and exploring different social roles and identities in order to establish a sense of self and independence. Forming close relationships also becomes an important task of late adolescence.
The document discusses psychoactive drugs and their effects on consciousness and addiction. It describes how continued drug use can lead to dependence and addiction through tolerance. Withdrawal from addictive drugs causes undesirable symptoms like discomfort and distress. Dependence involves physical and psychological cravings when absence from the drug. The document categorizes major psychoactive drugs into depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens; and provides examples and effects of drugs from each category like alcohol, cocaine, LSD. Biological, psychological and social-cultural factors influence drug use.
Hypnosis is a social interaction where a hypnotist suggests perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors to a subject. While hypnosis does not block sensory input, it can help reduce pain by dissociating the pain sensation from conscious awareness or focusing attention elsewhere. Theories on hypnosis include the social influence theory, which views subjects as role players influenced by social expectations, and the divided consciousness theory, where hypnosis creates a split in consciousness. Both theories may contribute to explaining hypnosis.
The document discusses different states of consciousness including waking consciousness and sleep. It describes how waking consciousness involves selective attention and can involve inattentional and change blindness. It discusses the circadian rhythm and how biological clocks influence sleep cycles, which go through different sleep stages over 90 minute periods, including REM sleep. Sleep is hypothesized to protect organisms from harm and allow the body and brain to recuperate. Sleep deprivation can impair functioning and increase health risks.
The document provides an overview of the structure and functions of the main parts of the human brain. It discusses older brain structures like the brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus and limbic system. It also describes the four lobes of the cerebral cortex and their functions. The document then summarizes research on split brain patients which revealed new insights about how the left and right hemispheres process information independently.
This document provides an overview of the nervous system and neural communication. It discusses that neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals, transmitting information through the body. There are sensory neurons that receive information and send it to the central nervous system, motor neurons that carry signals from the CNS to the muscles and glands, and interneurons that communicate within the CNS. The document outlines the structure and function of neurons, neural pathways, and neurotransmitters.
Module 2 research strategies how psychologists ask and answer questionsTina Medley
The document discusses various aspects of the scientific method used by psychologists to study behavior and mental processes. It explains that intuition and common sense can be inaccurate, while a scientific approach using steps like asking questions, constructing hypotheses, experimentation, analysis and communication of results can provide more reliable insights. Some examples discussed include how hindsight bias and overconfidence can affect perceptions, and the importance of objectively observing and describing behavior systematically through methods like case studies, surveys and naturalistic observation.
Module 1 the history and scope of psychologyTina Medley
The document provides an overview of the history and scope of psychology. It discusses how psychology originated from the work of philosophers like Wilhelm Wundt in the late 1800s. It then describes some of the major developments in psychology's evolution including behaviorism, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology. The document also outlines psychology's main levels of analysis using a biopsychosocial approach and lists some of psychology's main subfields including clinical, cognitive, and social psychology.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
1. Learning
How Do We
Learn?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nKHxT7fDwN4
2. Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in an organism’s behavior due to
experience.
Learning helps us adapt to our environment. Nature’s most important
gift to us may be our adaptability—our capacity to learn new
behaviors that enable us to cope with ever-changing experiences.
Learning also breeds hope. What we learn we can also teach to
others.
3. How Do We Learn?
The key to learning is experience. We learn by association. Our
minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.
2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Then
200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated this law.
The events linked in associative learning may be two stimuli (as
in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as
in operant conditioning). In observational learning, we learn by
viewing others’ experiences and examples.
4. Associative Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another. (classical conditioning)
This sea snail withdraws its gills when squirted with water. In its natural
habitat (i.e. choppy water) this response diminishes. However, if the squirt
is followed by an electric shock, the response becomes stronger. The snail
relates/associates the squirt of water to the impending shock.
6. Associative Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence. (operant conditioning)
7. Associative Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence. (operant conditioning)
8. Associative Learning
• Ex: 11 Mexican Grey Wolves (which has been extinct in
the US since 1977) were bred and raised in captivity.
• They were released in the Arizona Apache National
Forest in 1988.
• After 8 months there was only one surviving wolf. They
had learned to hunt and move away from people but
they had not learned to be afraid of them and hence did
not run away from those with guns.
• This supports that successful adaptation requires both
nature (genetic predispositions) and nurture (history of
appropriate learning).
9. • Conditioning is the process of learning
associations. In this module (18/7ed or 17/8thed)
we will cover classical conditioning which is
when we learn to associate two stimuli and
anticipate the events.
• In the next module (19/7ed or 18/8ed), we look
at operant conditioning where we learn to
associate a response (our behavior) and its
consequences. We usually repeat those acts
that are followed by good rewards and avoid
those acts that are followed by bad results.
11. Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical
theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who
elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later
behaviorists like John Watson. Watson and Pavlov shared: (1) a
disdain for mentalistic concepts such as consciousness and (2) a
belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals –
whether dogs or humans.
Today classical conditioning is seen as a basic form of learning by
which all organisms adapt to their environment. However, it is
agreeable that the conscious and mental processes should not be
ignored either.
Sovfoto
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
12. Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
13. Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov would repeatedly present a neutral stimulus (such as a
tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (US), such as
food, which triggered the unconditioned response (UR) of
salivation. After several repetitions, the tone alone (now the
conditioned stimulus [CS]) began triggering a conditioned
response (CR), salivation. Unconditioned means “unlearned”;
conditioned means “learned.” Thus, a UR is an event that
occurs naturally in response to some stimulus. A US is
something that naturally and automatically triggers the
unlearned response. A CS is an originally neutral stimulus
that, through learning, comes to be associated with some
unlearned response. A CR is the learned response to the
originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.
14. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
15. Conditioning
The bigger picture (in regards to
conditioning):
Conditioning helps an animal survive and
reproduce—by responding to cues that
help it gain food, avoid danger, locate
mates, and produce offspring.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
16. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical
conditioning in which an association between a neutral
stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral
stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned
stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half
a second.
3. Responses acquired like this demonstrate how classical
conditioning is biologically adaptive because it helps
organisms prepare for good or bad events.
18. Extinction
Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response when
the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without the
unconditioned stimulus.
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation)
begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.
19. Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response.
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously
recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes
extinct again.
20. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli
similar to the CS is called
generalization. Pavlov conditioned
the dog’s salivation (CR) by using
miniature vibrators (CS) on the
thigh. When he subsequently
stimulated other parts of the dog’s
body, salivation dropped.
Generalization has survival value
because it extends a learned response to
other stimuli in a given category, for
example, fleeing from all dangerous
animals.
21. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a
conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
Discrimination has survival value because it limits our learned responses
to appropriate stimuli, for example, fleeing from a rampaging lion but
not from a playful kitten.
22. Taste Aversions
Taste aversions are particularly good for illustrating classical conditioning.
Perhaps you can share one of your own and explain it in terms of
conditioning principles. Example: Some years ago my instructor stored a
dinner in the freezer compartment of our department’s refrigerator. When
he went to retrieve it, he found it in the company of a frozen laboratory rat.
He learned that a student assistant, not knowing how to dispose of the
deceased animal, had carefully packaged it in plastic and temporarily
placed it in the freezer. Not only was he unable to eat the dinner in the
freezer, but now he finds all such dinners repulsive. Do you have any
experiences of your own?
Psychologist Paul Rozin states, “Many people find slimy foods upsetting or
anything with mucoid texture.” This is an example of what he calls
“secondary disgust,” disgust for something that looks or feels similar to
something disgusting in its own right. Rozin notes how subjects in one of
his experiments were presented with two pieces of chocolate fudge, one
shaped to look like a muffin, the other a replica of dog droppings. Guess
which one subjects avoided.
23. Taste Aversion
In the following exercise, react to the following tasteful situations described
by Rozin. Then, we will compare your responses to those of Rozin’s 143
subjects. You should respond on a 9-point scale from 1 = dislike extremely
through 5 = neutral to 9 = like extremely.
For the first four questions, dream up a bowl of your favorite soup, one that
would score an unqualified 9.
1. Now imagine that the soup was served to you in an ordinary bowl, but had
been stirred by a thoroughly washed, used flyswatter. How much would
you like to eat that soup?
2. If that flyswatter were brand new, how much would you like to eat the
soup?
3. If the soup was first stirred with a thoroughly washed but used comb, how
much would you like to eat it?
6. If the soup was served in a thoroughly washed, used dog bowl, how much
would you like to eat it?
Now fantasize about your favorite cookie, again one that would rate a 9.
5. How much would you like to eat this cookie if you’d dropped it on the
grass first?
6. How much would you like to eat it if a waiter had taken a bite first? an
acquaintance? a good friend?
24. Taste Aversion
Clearly, the association principle is everything when it comes to food. The
idea that something disgusting has been near a favorite dish puts most
people off, even when the food is germ-free. Here are Rozin’s results.
1. Eighty-two percent of Rozin’s subjects rated the “clean-flyswatter
soup” a 4 or less; they would dislike eating it.
2. Fifty-eight percent disliked this bowl of soup. Since the flyswatter is
brand new, it has less of an association with insects. However, the idea
that the soup had been stirred by an object that might meet a fly in the
future was enough to make some people pass it up.
3. Seventy-six percent disliked this soup. Presumably, the thought of
human hair is slightly less disgusting than insect contamination.
4. Seventy-one percent disliked soup served in a dog bowl.
5. Only 34 percent would want to pass up this cookie. There’s no
assurance of perfect cleanliness, but grass itself has few negative
associations for most of us.
6. Eighty-four percent would reject this cookie after a waiter had taken a
bite. Only 31 percent would refuse it after an acquaintance had taken a
bite, and just 16 percent, if a friend had taken a bite.
25. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or
mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology.
However, they underestimated the importance of
cognitive processes and biological constraints.
Recap:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUa_F2OJT0k&feature=related
26. Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned
behaviors of various animals could be reduced
to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that
animals learn the predictability of a stimulus,
meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a
stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).
27. Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of
learning were similar for all animals.
Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ
in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that
learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
28. The Importance of Cognitive Processes and Biological
Predispositions in Classical Conditioning
Research indicates that, for many animals, cognitive appraisals are important
for learning. That is, thoughts and perceptions are important to the
conditioning process. For example, animals appear capable of learning
when to expect an unconditioned stimulus. The more predictable the
association between the CS and the US, the stronger the CR.
The early behaviorists’ view that any natural response could be conditioned to
any neutral stimulus has given way to the understanding that each species
is biologically prepared to learn associations that enhance its survival.
Thus, humans are likely to develop an aversion to the taste of a
contaminated food but not to the sight of an associated restaurant, its
plates, or the music they heard there. Similarly, rats develop aversions to
tastes but not to sights or sounds. Conditioning occurs best when the CS
and the US have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to
conclude that the CS causes the US.
29. Biological Predispositions
Courtesy of John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive John Garcia
CS (taste) led to conditioning but
other stimuli (sight or sound) did
not.
31. Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s greatest contribution
to psychology is isolating
elementary behaviors from
more complex ones through
objective scientific
procedures.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
32. Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov taught us that principles of learning apply across species and that
classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt
to their environment. Pavlov also demonstrated that significant
psychological phenomena can be studied objectively. Finally, Pavlov
taught us that conditioning principles have important applications such as
how to treat fear.
Classical conditioning principles provide important insights into drug abuse
and how it may be overcome. Classical conditioning works on the body’s
disease-fighting immune system. For example, when a particular taste
accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself
may come to produce those immune responses. Watson’s “Little Albert”
study demonstrated how classical conditioning may underlie specific fears.
Today, psychologists use extinction procedures to control our less adaptive
emotions and condition new responses to emotion-arousing
stimuli.
33. Applications of Classical
Conditioning
1. Former drug users often feel a craving when they
are again in the drug-using context—with people or
in places they associate with previous highs. This,
drug counselors advise addicts to steer clear of
people and settings that may trigger theses
cravings.
2. Classical conditioning even works on the body’s
disease-fighting immune system. When a particular
taste accompanies a drug that influences immune
responses, the taste by itself may come to produce
an immune response.
34. Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Watson used classical
conditioning procedures to
develop advertising
campaigns for a number of
organizations, including
Maxwell House, making the
“coffee break” an American
Brown Brothers
custom.
John B. Watson
35. Little Albert
Human behaviors and emotions are
biologically influenced, however they are
also greatly learned and are hence a
bundle of conditioned responses.
Case: Little Albert—he feared loud noises
like most infants, but he did not fear rats.
He was conditioned to fear rats and then
generalized that fear to other things as
well.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE&feature=related
Editor's Notes
Preview Question 1: What is learning?
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
Preview Question 3: How does a neutral stimulus become a CS, and what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination in classical conditioning?
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.
Preview Question 4: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?
Preview Question 5: Why is Pavlov’s work important?