1) Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It allows for more flexibility than genetically programmed behaviors.
2) There are different types of learning, including associative learning (connecting events), classical conditioning (associating a stimulus with a response), and operant conditioning (associating a behavior with a consequence).
3) Classical conditioning experiments by Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus could elicit a conditioned response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. Operant conditioning experiments by Skinner showed that behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.
1. The document summarizes key concepts in learning from classical and operant conditioning. It describes Pavlov's experiments with classical conditioning and key terms like the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
2. It then discusses Skinner's experiments on operant conditioning including concepts like shaping, reinforcement, and reinforcement schedules.
3. The summary also compares classical and operant conditioning, noting the differences in the associations formed in each type of learning.
This chapter discusses different types of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through processes like Pavlovian conditioning. Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors. Observational learning occurs when observing and imitating the behaviors of others.
This document provides an overview of learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. It summarizes key experiments and findings in these areas. For classical conditioning, it describes Pavlov's experiments with dogs and conditioning and key concepts like acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. For operant conditioning, it outlines Skinner's experiments with rats in operant chambers and concepts like shaping, reinforcement schedules, and punishment. It also discusses Bandura's experiments demonstrating observational learning in children through imitation of rewarded and punished behaviors.
This document provides an overview of learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. It summarizes key experiments and findings from Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning, B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, and Albert Bandura on observational learning. The document outlines concepts such as acquisition, extinction, generalization, reinforcement schedules, and applications of these learning theories to behavior modification.
Learning is the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience or practice that results in relatively permanent changes to behavior. There are two main types of learning:
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response. Operant conditioning involves changing behavior through reinforcement or punishment in response to the consequences of an action.
El documento describe los diferentes climas de España y Navarra. Existen cinco tipos de climas en España: mediterráneo típico, mediterráneo de interior, oceánico, subtropical y de montaña. Navarra tiene tres climas principales: de montaña en el norte, oceánico en los valles del norte debido a la cercanía del mar Cantábrico, y mediterráneo de interior en la Ribera y parte de la Navarra media.
9º ano sj história rafael - era das gueras - 1ª, crise de 29 e 2ª guerraRafael Noronha
O documento discute a Primeira Guerra Mundial, incluindo suas causas imediatas, como o assassinato do Duque da Bósnia, e seu início com a declaração de guerra da Áustria-Húngara contra a Sérvia. A guerra se espalhou e envolveu diversos países em duas alianças opostas: a Tríplice Entente e a Tríplice Aliança. A guerra foi marcada por trincheiras e teve grandes consequências, como a Revolução Russa de 1917 e a entrada dos EUA no
1. The document summarizes key concepts in learning from classical and operant conditioning. It describes Pavlov's experiments with classical conditioning and key terms like the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
2. It then discusses Skinner's experiments on operant conditioning including concepts like shaping, reinforcement, and reinforcement schedules.
3. The summary also compares classical and operant conditioning, noting the differences in the associations formed in each type of learning.
This chapter discusses different types of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through processes like Pavlovian conditioning. Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors. Observational learning occurs when observing and imitating the behaviors of others.
This document provides an overview of learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. It summarizes key experiments and findings in these areas. For classical conditioning, it describes Pavlov's experiments with dogs and conditioning and key concepts like acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. For operant conditioning, it outlines Skinner's experiments with rats in operant chambers and concepts like shaping, reinforcement schedules, and punishment. It also discusses Bandura's experiments demonstrating observational learning in children through imitation of rewarded and punished behaviors.
This document provides an overview of learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. It summarizes key experiments and findings from Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning, B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, and Albert Bandura on observational learning. The document outlines concepts such as acquisition, extinction, generalization, reinforcement schedules, and applications of these learning theories to behavior modification.
Learning is the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience or practice that results in relatively permanent changes to behavior. There are two main types of learning:
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response. Operant conditioning involves changing behavior through reinforcement or punishment in response to the consequences of an action.
El documento describe los diferentes climas de España y Navarra. Existen cinco tipos de climas en España: mediterráneo típico, mediterráneo de interior, oceánico, subtropical y de montaña. Navarra tiene tres climas principales: de montaña en el norte, oceánico en los valles del norte debido a la cercanía del mar Cantábrico, y mediterráneo de interior en la Ribera y parte de la Navarra media.
9º ano sj história rafael - era das gueras - 1ª, crise de 29 e 2ª guerraRafael Noronha
O documento discute a Primeira Guerra Mundial, incluindo suas causas imediatas, como o assassinato do Duque da Bósnia, e seu início com a declaração de guerra da Áustria-Húngara contra a Sérvia. A guerra se espalhou e envolveu diversos países em duas alianças opostas: a Tríplice Entente e a Tríplice Aliança. A guerra foi marcada por trincheiras e teve grandes consequências, como a Revolução Russa de 1917 e a entrada dos EUA no
1) Descreve o modelo atômico de Bohr, no qual os elétrons descrevem órbitas circulares de energia quantizada ao redor do núcleo.
2) Explica que os níveis de energia foram divididos em subníveis menores por Sommerfield.
3) Apresenta uma tabela com as camadas, níveis e subníveis de elétrons.
This document provides an overview of 9 jobs in the radio, television, and film industries. For radio, it describes the roles of studio assistant, radio manager, and programme researcher. For television, it outlines the jobs of TV floor manager, TV production assistant, and TV camera operator. Common responsibilities across roles include assisting in production, conducting research, ensuring smooth operations, and operating equipment. Experience in these entry-level positions can lead to higher-level creative and managerial careers in media.
This document contains a collection of letters, numbers, and symbols but no meaningful words or sentences. It does not convey any discernible information that can be summarized in 3 sentences or less.
This document provides an overview of a project to refurbish the mechanical and electrical systems on 5 additional floors of the iconic Centre Point Tower in London. The project was completed over 30 weeks and involved replacing aging mechanical plant and equipment while working within tight spaces and avoiding disruption to occupied floors. Additional mechanical work included alterations to boiler pipework, expanding heat distribution risers, and installing new variable speed pumps for air conditioning units.
This lesson plan is for a Year 9 English class analyzing Act Two of An Inspector Calls. The learning objectives are for students to understand Mrs. Birling's character and write an empathetic diary response from her perspective. Students will analyze Mrs. Birling's speech in the text to identify stylistic features like lexical choices and utterances. They will then apply what they've learned to write their own diary entry as Mrs. Birling responding to her interaction with the Inspector. Formative assessments include teacher questioning, peer review, and a final writing task demonstrating understanding of Mrs. Birling's character.
La alumna María Gpe. Monroy Ponce realizó una actividad de limpieza en su escuela para la asignatura de Educación ambiental para la sustentabilidad con su profesora María Isabel Ramírez Ochoa. Los estudiantes se prepararon con guantes, tapabocas y arpones para recoger la basura de la escuela, separando los desechos reciclables en bolsas transparentes y el resto en bolsas negras. Al final, juntaron toda la basura recolectada en las bolsas para desecharla, demostrando que con
Remarkably successful leaders share common habits including not creating back-up plans to spur harder work, putting in incredible focused effort for long-term success rather than overnight gains, embracing workloads others consider crazy, avoiding crowds to face less competition, starting with ultimate goals and working backwards, being tenacious and refusing to give up, not stopping after achieving goals but using them as launches for more, selling through confidence despite rejection, and being willing to admit mistakes and failures to improve.
This document discusses esthetic failures that can occur in fixed partial dentures. It outlines several types of esthetic errors, including errors in shade selection, tooth shape, space allocation, structural lines, and midline positioning. Proper treatment planning and consideration of factors like gingival esthetics, smile design, and occlusion are important to avoid these esthetic failures. Careful dialogue between the prosthodontist and patient is needed to select the appropriate treatment and manage risks.
9 d seguimiento segundo periodo mayo 22 de 2013IE Simona Duque
This document appears to be a progress report or report card for the second period of a class. It lists 41 students and their grades on various assignments, activities, tests and their overall grade for the period. The assignments included developing research questions, a concept map, blog/website configuration, collaborative work, participation in online events and a final project presentation. Grades for each category range from 1 to 5.
2016. 01. 12. - 9nya - informatika nyílt óra
Ezen az órán a diákokkal megbeszéltük, hogy mit gondolnak, mitől nevezhetünk egy eszközt "okosnak". Megnéztük, hogy ők milyen okos eszközöket használnak, és, hogy milyen eszközöket használnának szívesen. A nyílt óra második felében a hihetetlennek tűnő, de létező okos eszközökről beszélgettük... :)
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 7 of the 9th edition of the psychology textbook by David Myers. It discusses three major types of learning: classical conditioning explored through Pavlov's experiments on dogs, operant conditioning studied using Skinner's experiments in operant chambers, and observational learning demonstrated by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, operant conditioning forms associations between behaviors and consequences, and observational learning occurs when behaviors are learned through observing others. The document also outlines concepts like acquisition, extinction, reinforcement schedules, and punishment in operant conditioning.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 of Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers regarding learning. It discusses three major types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. For classical conditioning, it describes Pavlov's experiments with dogs and conditioning and key concepts like acquisition, extinction, and generalization. For operant conditioning, it outlines Skinner's experiments with rats in operant chambers and concepts like reinforcement schedules, shaping, and punishment. It also discusses Bandura's bobo doll experiment regarding observational learning from models.
1) The document discusses classical and operant conditioning, summarizing key experiments and findings. It describes Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs and salivation. 2) It also summarizes B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning experiments using operant chambers and reinforcement schedules to shape animal behaviors. 3) The document notes extensions of classical and operant conditioning theories to incorporate cognitive processes and biological constraints on learning.
This document summarizes different theories and experiments on how learning occurs. It discusses classical conditioning by Pavlov and operant conditioning by Skinner. It also covers observational learning through Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Later sections extend these theories by considering cognition, biological constraints, and real-world applications of conditioning principles.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are two main types of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, like Pavlov's dog experiment, while operant conditioning involves associating behaviors with consequences through reinforcement or punishment, as in Skinner's experiments. Both types of learning are important and observations also influence learning through imitation of models.
Classical conditioning was elucidated by Ivan Pavlov through his famous dog experiments. Pavlov found that a neutral stimulus could be paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. For example, Pavlov paired the sound of a tone (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), which caused dogs to salivate (unconditioned response). After conditioning, the dogs learned to salivate to the tone alone (conditioned response). Pavlov's work provided the basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B.F. Skinner.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
1) Descreve o modelo atômico de Bohr, no qual os elétrons descrevem órbitas circulares de energia quantizada ao redor do núcleo.
2) Explica que os níveis de energia foram divididos em subníveis menores por Sommerfield.
3) Apresenta uma tabela com as camadas, níveis e subníveis de elétrons.
This document provides an overview of 9 jobs in the radio, television, and film industries. For radio, it describes the roles of studio assistant, radio manager, and programme researcher. For television, it outlines the jobs of TV floor manager, TV production assistant, and TV camera operator. Common responsibilities across roles include assisting in production, conducting research, ensuring smooth operations, and operating equipment. Experience in these entry-level positions can lead to higher-level creative and managerial careers in media.
This document contains a collection of letters, numbers, and symbols but no meaningful words or sentences. It does not convey any discernible information that can be summarized in 3 sentences or less.
This document provides an overview of a project to refurbish the mechanical and electrical systems on 5 additional floors of the iconic Centre Point Tower in London. The project was completed over 30 weeks and involved replacing aging mechanical plant and equipment while working within tight spaces and avoiding disruption to occupied floors. Additional mechanical work included alterations to boiler pipework, expanding heat distribution risers, and installing new variable speed pumps for air conditioning units.
This lesson plan is for a Year 9 English class analyzing Act Two of An Inspector Calls. The learning objectives are for students to understand Mrs. Birling's character and write an empathetic diary response from her perspective. Students will analyze Mrs. Birling's speech in the text to identify stylistic features like lexical choices and utterances. They will then apply what they've learned to write their own diary entry as Mrs. Birling responding to her interaction with the Inspector. Formative assessments include teacher questioning, peer review, and a final writing task demonstrating understanding of Mrs. Birling's character.
La alumna María Gpe. Monroy Ponce realizó una actividad de limpieza en su escuela para la asignatura de Educación ambiental para la sustentabilidad con su profesora María Isabel Ramírez Ochoa. Los estudiantes se prepararon con guantes, tapabocas y arpones para recoger la basura de la escuela, separando los desechos reciclables en bolsas transparentes y el resto en bolsas negras. Al final, juntaron toda la basura recolectada en las bolsas para desecharla, demostrando que con
Remarkably successful leaders share common habits including not creating back-up plans to spur harder work, putting in incredible focused effort for long-term success rather than overnight gains, embracing workloads others consider crazy, avoiding crowds to face less competition, starting with ultimate goals and working backwards, being tenacious and refusing to give up, not stopping after achieving goals but using them as launches for more, selling through confidence despite rejection, and being willing to admit mistakes and failures to improve.
This document discusses esthetic failures that can occur in fixed partial dentures. It outlines several types of esthetic errors, including errors in shade selection, tooth shape, space allocation, structural lines, and midline positioning. Proper treatment planning and consideration of factors like gingival esthetics, smile design, and occlusion are important to avoid these esthetic failures. Careful dialogue between the prosthodontist and patient is needed to select the appropriate treatment and manage risks.
9 d seguimiento segundo periodo mayo 22 de 2013IE Simona Duque
This document appears to be a progress report or report card for the second period of a class. It lists 41 students and their grades on various assignments, activities, tests and their overall grade for the period. The assignments included developing research questions, a concept map, blog/website configuration, collaborative work, participation in online events and a final project presentation. Grades for each category range from 1 to 5.
2016. 01. 12. - 9nya - informatika nyílt óra
Ezen az órán a diákokkal megbeszéltük, hogy mit gondolnak, mitől nevezhetünk egy eszközt "okosnak". Megnéztük, hogy ők milyen okos eszközöket használnak, és, hogy milyen eszközöket használnának szívesen. A nyílt óra második felében a hihetetlennek tűnő, de létező okos eszközökről beszélgettük... :)
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 7 of the 9th edition of the psychology textbook by David Myers. It discusses three major types of learning: classical conditioning explored through Pavlov's experiments on dogs, operant conditioning studied using Skinner's experiments in operant chambers, and observational learning demonstrated by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, operant conditioning forms associations between behaviors and consequences, and observational learning occurs when behaviors are learned through observing others. The document also outlines concepts like acquisition, extinction, reinforcement schedules, and punishment in operant conditioning.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 8 of Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers regarding learning. It discusses three major types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. For classical conditioning, it describes Pavlov's experiments with dogs and conditioning and key concepts like acquisition, extinction, and generalization. For operant conditioning, it outlines Skinner's experiments with rats in operant chambers and concepts like reinforcement schedules, shaping, and punishment. It also discusses Bandura's bobo doll experiment regarding observational learning from models.
1) The document discusses classical and operant conditioning, summarizing key experiments and findings. It describes Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs and salivation. 2) It also summarizes B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning experiments using operant chambers and reinforcement schedules to shape animal behaviors. 3) The document notes extensions of classical and operant conditioning theories to incorporate cognitive processes and biological constraints on learning.
This document summarizes different theories and experiments on how learning occurs. It discusses classical conditioning by Pavlov and operant conditioning by Skinner. It also covers observational learning through Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Later sections extend these theories by considering cognition, biological constraints, and real-world applications of conditioning principles.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are two main types of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, like Pavlov's dog experiment, while operant conditioning involves associating behaviors with consequences through reinforcement or punishment, as in Skinner's experiments. Both types of learning are important and observations also influence learning through imitation of models.
Classical conditioning was elucidated by Ivan Pavlov through his famous dog experiments. Pavlov found that a neutral stimulus could be paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. For example, Pavlov paired the sound of a tone (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), which caused dogs to salivate (unconditioned response). After conditioning, the dogs learned to salivate to the tone alone (conditioned response). Pavlov's work provided the basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B.F. Skinner.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
This document provides an overview of learning in psychology from several perspectives. It discusses classical and operant conditioning, including their basic principles and examples of how they are applied in everyday life. Classical conditioning involves associating an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a reflexive response with a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairing. Operant conditioning examines how voluntary behaviors are strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment. The document also covers types of learning like shaping behavior through successive approximations and uses of reinforcement schedules.
Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli, while operant conditioning forms associations between behaviors and consequences. Classical conditioning involves automatic responses to stimuli, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors that operate on the environment. Skinner developed the operant chamber to study how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors over time according to various schedules of reinforcement. Operant conditioning principles can be applied in education, sports, workplaces, and parenting to modify behaviors.
Introductory Psychology: Learning Part II (Operant)Brian Piper
lecture 19 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, operant conditioning
The document provides an overview of learning and different types of conditioning processes. It discusses classical conditioning, including Pavlov's experiments showing that dogs can learn to associate stimuli. Repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with food led dogs to eventually salivate to just the stimulus. Operant conditioning is also examined, focusing on how behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. Various applications of classical and operant conditioning in teaching are also outlined.
Pavlov's classic experiments on classical conditioning demonstrated that organisms can learn to associate neutral stimuli with biologically significant stimuli, as when his dogs learned to salivate to a tone that predicted food. Later research expanded on Pavlov's work to show the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in conditioning, and that conditioning principles can help explain diverse phenomena like drug addiction, immune responses, phobias, and advertising effectiveness. Pavlov's work established classical conditioning as a fundamental form of learning and influenced the development of behaviorism.
6LearningRevised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of.docxfredharris32
6
Learning
Revised by Pauline Davey Zeece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Learning
Acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience
Associative learning: Learning that certain events occur together
Events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences.
Cognitive learning: Acquisition of mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language
2
Forms of Conditioning
Classical conditioning
One learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Produces respondent behavior
Operant conditioning
One learns to associate an action and its consequence.
Produces operant behavior
Conditioning - A process of learning associations.
Stimulus: Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Respondent behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
3
Figure 6.1 - Classical Conditioning
4
Figure 6.2 - Operant Conditioning
Retrieve and Remember 1
Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?
ANSWER: Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn associations—often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn’t seem right anymore!
6
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s experiments
Pavlov’s legacy
Figure 6.3 - Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.
8
Classical Conditioning: Terms
Neutral stimulus (NS): Evokes no response before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US): Unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers a response
Unconditioned response (UR): Unlearned and naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
9
Conditioned Response and Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
Learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Irrelevant stimulus that triggers a conditioned response (CR) after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US)
Pavlov’s Experiments
Explored conditioning processes
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discrimination
Ivan Pavlov: “Experimental investigation…
should lay a solid foundation for a future true
science of psychology” (1927).
Retrieve and Remember 2
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink.
After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone.
What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
ANSWERS: NS = tone before conditioning; US = air puff; UR = blink to air puff; CS = tone after conditioning; CR = blink to tone
12
Acquisition
I.
New microsoft office power point presentationtpremastella
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences. Ivan Pavlov's famous dog experiments in the early 1900s demonstrated that a dog could learn to associate food with the sound of a bell. The dog would salivate in response to the bell alone after repeatedly hearing the bell right before receiving food. Pavlov's work provided insights into how neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli that elicit conditioned responses and established the basic principles of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli to form automatic responses, while operant conditioning associates behaviors with consequences; B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike's law of effect through experiments using operant chambers to study how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors under schedules like fixed-ratio and variable-interval reinforcement. Operant conditioning principles can be applied in education, sports, and work to modify behaviors through consequences.
This document provides an overview of learning concepts including classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped by their consequences, such as reinforcement. Major figures who studied these concepts include Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. Contemporary views acknowledge cognitive and biological factors in learning. Learning principles have applications in behavior modification, education, sports, and business.
This document discusses learning theories of behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning. It summarizes the key experiments and concepts from theorists like Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner. Specifically, it describes Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment with dogs, Watson's classical conditioning experiment with Little Albert, and Thorndike's early experiments with puzzle boxes that helped establish the laws of exercise and effect related to operant conditioning.
1. Observational learning, also known as social learning or modeling, occurs when behavior changes as a result of observing others.
2. Albert Bandura's social learning theory emphasized that observational learning can occur without direct reinforcement or punishment - by observing models and the consequences of their behavior, people can learn new behaviors.
3. Observational learning involves four processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. By observing models, consequences, and one's own abilities, people determine which behaviors to adopt and perform.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state arising from experience. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through repeated pairing, such as Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a bell. Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviors are reinforced or punished to increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence. Reinforcers that immediately follow a behavior are most effective at shaping learning. Cognitive factors like latent learning and observational learning also influence the learning process.
Introduction to Learning The change that occurs during learning is a potential for behavior that depends on other conditions.
Learning is not always a permanent change.
What can be learned can be unlearned.
Changes also occur for other reasons – maturation, motivation.
2. Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to experience.
Learning is more flexible in comparison to the
genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks,
for example.
2
3. How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our minds
naturally connect events that occur in
sequence.
2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this
law of association. Then 200 years ago
Locke and Hume reiterated this law.
3
8. Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated
classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Sovfoto
8
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
9. Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
9
10. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
10
11. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the
neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second.
11
13. Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
13
14. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation)
spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists
alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
14
15. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to the CS is
called generalization.
Pavlov conditioned the
dog’s salivation (CR) by
using miniature vibrators
(CS) on the thigh. When he
subsequently stimulated
other parts of the dog’s
body, salivation dropped.
15
16. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
16
17. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness,
or mind, unfit for the scientific study of
psychology. However, they underestimated
the importance of cognitive processes and
biological constraints.
17
18. Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned
behaviors of various animals could be reduced
to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that
animals learn the predictability of a stimulus,
meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a
stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).
18
19. Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of
learning were similar for all animals.
Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ
in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that
learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
19
20. Biological Predispositions
Courtesy of John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive John Garcia
CS (taste) led to conditioning but
other stimuli (sight or sound) did
not.
20
22. Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s greatest contribution
to psychology is isolating
elementary behaviors from
more complex ones through
objective scientific
procedures.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
22
23. Applications of Classical
Conditioning
1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid
cues (people, places) associated with
previous drug use.
2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus
its taste) that affects the immune response
may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the
immune response.
23
24. Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Watson used classical
conditioning procedures to
develop advertising
campaigns for a number of
organizations, including
Maxwell House, making the
“coffee break” an American
Brown Brothers
custom.
John B. Watson
24
25. Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning
forms associations
between stimuli (CS
and US). Operant
conditioning, on the
other hand, forms an
association between
behaviors and the
resulting events.
25
26. Operant & Classical Conditioning
2. Classical conditioning involves respondent
behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to a certain stimulus. Operant
conditioning involves operant behavior, a
behavior that operates on the environment,
producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
26
27. Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s
thinking, especially his law of effect. This law
states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur
again.
Yale University Library
27
28. Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting
point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber,
or the Skinner box, to study operant
conditioning.
Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission
From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd
by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division
Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
28
29. Operant Chamber
The operant chamber,
or Skinner box, comes
with a bar or key that
an animal manipulates
to obtain a reinforcer
like food or water. The
bar or key is connected
to devices that record
the animal’s response.
29
30. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior through successive
approximations.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 30
31. Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively
reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
Reuters/ Corbis
31
32. Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing
stimulus like food or drink.
2. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned
reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power
through association with the primary
reinforcer.
32
33. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that
occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets
a food pellet for a bar press.
2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is
delayed in time for a certain behavior. A
paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate
reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed
reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require
consistent study. 33
34. Reinforcement Schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the
desired response each time it occurs.
2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a
response only part of the time. Though this
results in slower acquisition in the
beginning, it shows greater resistance to
extinction later on.
34
35. Ratio Schedules
1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
e.g., piecework pay.
2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a
response after an unpredictable number of
responses. This is hard to extinguish because
of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like
gambling, fishing.)
35
36. Interval Schedules
1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified time has
elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam
only when the exam draws close.)
2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response at unpredictable time
intervals, which produces slow, steady
responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)
36
39. Punishment
Although there may be some justification for
occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,
2002), it usually leads to negative effects.
1. Results in unwanted fears.
2. Conveys no information to the organism.
3. Justifies pain to others.
4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its
absence.
5. Causes aggression towards the agent.
6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in
place of another. 39
40. Extending Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner believed in inner thought processes and
biological underpinnings, but many
psychologists criticize him for discounting
them.
40
41. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant
learning comes from rats during a maze
exploration in which they navigate the maze
without an obvious reward. Rats seem to
develop cognitive maps, or mental
representations, of the layout of the maze
(environment).
41
42. Latent Learning
Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent only when
an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
42
43. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior for its own
sake.
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior due to
promised rewards or
threats of punishments.
43
44. Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints
predispose organisms to
learn associations that
are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland
(1961) showed that
animals drift towards
Photo: Bob Bailey
their biologically
predisposed instinctive
behaviors.
Marian Breland Bailey
44
45. Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued that Skinner
dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc
45
.
46. Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching
machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
46
In School
47. Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies
now allow employees to share profits and
participate in company ownership.
47
At work
48. Applications of Operant
Conditioning
At Home
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases
the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring
unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
48
52. 14-month-old child
in pulling a toy apart.
begins early in life. This
imitates the adult on TV
Learning by observation
Imitation Onset
52
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
53. Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated
that individuals
(children) learn
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
through imitating
others who receive
rewards and
punishments.
53
54. Applications of Observational
Learning
Unfortunately,
Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial
models (family,
neighborhood or TV)
may have antisocial
effects.
54
56. Television and Observational
Learning
Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school
who are exposed to
violent television,
videos, and video
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
games express
increased aggression.
56
57. Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works
Children modeling after pro wrestlers 57
Editor's Notes
Preview Question 1: What are some basic forms of learning?
Preview Question 2: What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov’s work influence behaviorism?
Preview Question 3: How does a neutral stimulus become a CS, and what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination in classical conditioning?
Preview Question 4: In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
Preview Question 5: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?
Preview Question 6: Why is Pavlov’s work important?
Preview Question 7: What have been some applications of classical conditioning?
Preview Question 8: What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?
Preview Question 9: What are the basic types of reinforcers?
Preview Question 10: How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?
Preview Question 11: How does punishment affect behavior?
Preview Question 12: Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning?
Preview Question 13: How might operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?
Preview Question 14: What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons?
Preview Question 15: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?