Restriction mapping is a method used to map an unknown segment of DNA by breaking it into pieces and then identifying the locations of the breakpoints. This method relies upon the use of proteins called restriction enzymes, which can cut, or digest, DNA molecules at short, specific sequences called restriction sites.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic dna replication with their clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA Replication with their clinical applications for MBBS , BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
History of DNA. introduction of DNA with short history and findings. different types of DNA with structures variations. A -DNA, B- DNA, C- DNA E- DNA D- DNA And Z DNA Detail information of these DNA with their comparison tables, different types of unusual DNA and sequences. Functions of DNA with their explanations . Nucleic acid chemical basis : Denaturation and annealing of DNA with factors for that. New DNA.
INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY.
PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION.
STAGES OF TRANSCRIPTION.
ENZYME INVOLVES IN TRANSCRIPTION.
TERMINATION.
PROKARYOTES.
Transcription terminators.
EUKARYOTES.
Two models for termination.
CONCLUSION.
REFERENCES.
This presentation is given by Miss Khunsha Fatima. This presentation will cover mainly Restriction Modification Enzymes, its Types, Applications and its related topics discussed in detail watch the video for more concepts about the topic.
DNA
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDES
DNA REPAIR
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DNA REPAIR
I)DIRECT REPAIR SYSTEM,
II)BASE EXCISION REPAIR,
III)NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR,
IV)MISMATCH REPAIR,
V)RECOMBINATION REPAIR,
DEFECTS IN DNA REPAIR UNDERLIE HUMAN DISEASE
DNA RECOMBINATION
INTRODUCTION
MECHANISM OF DNA RECOMBINATION
TYPES OF RECOMBINATION
I) HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
MODELS FOR HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION:-
I)HOLLIDAY MODEL,
II)MESSELSON AND RADDING MODEL,
III)DOUBLE STRAND BREAK MODEL,
GENE CONVERSION
II) NON-HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION,
i) SITE SPECIFIC RECOMBINATION,
ii)TRANSPOSITIONAL RECOMBINATION.,
The chain-termination method developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977. This method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
Restriction mapping is a method used to map an unknown segment of DNA by breaking it into pieces and then identifying the locations of the breakpoints. This method relies upon the use of proteins called restriction enzymes, which can cut, or digest, DNA molecules at short, specific sequences called restriction sites.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic dna replication with their clinical applicationsrohini sane
A comprehensive presentation on Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DNA Replication with their clinical applications for MBBS , BDS, B Pharm & Biotechnology students to facilitate self- study.
History of DNA. introduction of DNA with short history and findings. different types of DNA with structures variations. A -DNA, B- DNA, C- DNA E- DNA D- DNA And Z DNA Detail information of these DNA with their comparison tables, different types of unusual DNA and sequences. Functions of DNA with their explanations . Nucleic acid chemical basis : Denaturation and annealing of DNA with factors for that. New DNA.
INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY.
PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION.
STAGES OF TRANSCRIPTION.
ENZYME INVOLVES IN TRANSCRIPTION.
TERMINATION.
PROKARYOTES.
Transcription terminators.
EUKARYOTES.
Two models for termination.
CONCLUSION.
REFERENCES.
This presentation is given by Miss Khunsha Fatima. This presentation will cover mainly Restriction Modification Enzymes, its Types, Applications and its related topics discussed in detail watch the video for more concepts about the topic.
DNA
INTRODUCTION
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDES
DNA REPAIR
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF DNA REPAIR
I)DIRECT REPAIR SYSTEM,
II)BASE EXCISION REPAIR,
III)NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR,
IV)MISMATCH REPAIR,
V)RECOMBINATION REPAIR,
DEFECTS IN DNA REPAIR UNDERLIE HUMAN DISEASE
DNA RECOMBINATION
INTRODUCTION
MECHANISM OF DNA RECOMBINATION
TYPES OF RECOMBINATION
I) HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION
MODELS FOR HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION:-
I)HOLLIDAY MODEL,
II)MESSELSON AND RADDING MODEL,
III)DOUBLE STRAND BREAK MODEL,
GENE CONVERSION
II) NON-HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION,
i) SITE SPECIFIC RECOMBINATION,
ii)TRANSPOSITIONAL RECOMBINATION.,
The chain-termination method developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977. This method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
1. HBC1011 Biochemistry I
Lecture 12-13 – DNA, RNA and the
flow of genetic information
Ng Chong Han, PhD
ITAR1010, 06-2523751
chng@mmu.edu.my
2. Overview
• Types of nucleic acids
• Nucleic acid structures
• Double helix and genetic information
• DNA replication
• DNA transcription
• Post-transcriptional modification (RNA processing)
2
3. Nucleic acid
• Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
RNA (ribonucleic acid), are long linear polymers made of
monomers known as nucleotides.
• A nucleotide has three components:
– a 5-carbon sugar: deoxyribose (DNA), or ribose (RNA)
– a nitrogenous base
– one, two or three phosphate groups
3
5. A nucleic acid consists of 4 kinds of bases
linked to sugar-phosphate backbone
5
DNA primary structure consists of a linear sequence of
nucleotides that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds.
6. Ribose and deoxyribose
• The prefix deoxy indicates that the 2’-carbon atom of the sugar
lacks the oxygen atom. The absence of 2’-OH group in DNA
increases its resistance to hydrolysis, making DNA more stable
than RNA.
6
7. Backbones of DNA and RNA
• The backbones of the nucleic acids are formed by 3’-to-5’
phosphodiester linkages. A sugar unit is highlighted in red and a
phosphate group in blue.
7
8. Backbones of DNA and RNA
• The 3’-hydroxyl (3’-OH) group of the sugar moiety of one
nucleotide is esterified to a phosphate group, which is, in turn,
joined to the 5’-hydroxyl group of the adjacent sugar. Whereas
the backbone is constant in a nucleic acid, the base vary from one
monomer to the next. 8
10. Nucleoside
• Nucleoside: Nucleotides without a phosphate group, composed of a
nucleobase (nitrogenous base) and a 5-carbon sugar (ribose
or deoxyribose), linked via a beta-glycosidic linkage.
• DNA: deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine, deoxycytidine, deoxythymidine
• RNA: adenosine, guanosine, cytidine and uridine
10
11. Nucleotide
• Nucleotide: composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least one phosphate group,
joined to one or more phosphoryl groups by an ester linkage.
• Example: adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP), deoxyguanosine 3’-
monophosphate (3’-dGMP)
11
13. Structure of a DNA chain
13
The chain has a 5’ end which is normally attached to a
phosphate group, and a 3’ end which is usually a free
hydroxyl group
14. Nucleoside and nucleotide analogues
• Can be used in therapeutic drugs, include a range of antiviral products
used to prevent viral replication in infected cells, eg. acyclovir.
• Can be used against cancer, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, herpes
simplex, and HIV. They work as antimetabolites (inhibits the use of
a metabolite), by being similar enough to nucleotides to be incorporated
into growing DNA strands; but they act as chain terminators and stop
viral DNA polymerase.
14
Compounds which
are analogous (structur
ally similar) to naturally
occurring RNA and
DNA
15. DNA chain has directionality
• The base sequence is written in
the 5’-to-3’ direction.
• The chain has a 5’ end which is
normally attached to a phosphate
group, and a 3’ end which is
usually a free hydroxyl group.
• The repeating linkage is a 3’,5’-
phosphodiester bond.
15
16. DNA chain has directionality
• Nucleic acids can only be synthesized in
vivo in the 5′-to-3′ direction
• In coding DNA, codons read 5′–ACGT-3′
on the sense strand, and 3′–TGCA–5′ on
the complementary antisense strand.
• Thus only the antisense (template)
strand will be transcribed to
(5′-ACGU-3’) mRNA.
• By convention, single strands
of DNA and RNA sequences are written
in 5′-to-3′ direction.
16
sense antisense
17. The formation of phosphodiester bond
17
Energy-releasing
or energy-
requiring process?
19. DNA and RNA can adopt secondary
structure
• Single-stranded nucleic acids, especially RNA often fold back on
themselves to form secondary structure.
• Stem loop/hairpin: created when two complementary sequences
within a single strand come together to form double-helical
structure.
20. DNA and RNA can adopt secondary
structure
• A single-stranded RNA molecule can fold
back itself to form a complex structure.
• Metal ions such as Mg2+ often assist in
the stabilization of these more elaborate
structures.
21. DNA structure
• Covalent structure of nucleic acids accounts for their ability to store
genetic information in the form of DNA sequence.
• The double helix structure facilitates the replication of the genetic
material – the generation of two copies of a nucleic acid form one.
• Maurice Wilkins, Raymond Gosling, Rosalind Franklin obtained x-
ray diffraction photographs of DNA fibers (photograph 51).
• Diffraction patterns indicate that DNA is formed of two chains that
wind in a regular helical structure.
21
22. DNA structure
• James Watson and Francis Crick deduced a structural 3D DNA
model from the diffraction pattern in University of Cambridge,
1953, based on data obtained from photograph 51, King’s College.
• The tertiary structure of a nucleic acid is its precise three-
dimensional structure, as defined by the atomic coordinates.
22
23. Taken at A Heroic Voyage – Sydney Brenner’s
Life in Science, 1st Oct 2015, Biopolis, Singapore
24. Two helical polynucleotide chain are
coiled in a right-handed, clockwise
fashion. The chain are antiparallel,
meaning they have opposite
polarity.
Sugar phosphate backbones are on
the outside. DNA bases are on the
inside of the helix.
Bases are nearly perpendicular
to the axis
Bases are 3.4Å (ångström) from each other
36 degrees per base
360 degrees per full turn(10 bases)
34A per turn of helix
10 bases per turn of helix
3.4Å per base
Diameter of helix 20Å
Watson-Crick DNA model
25. Double helix groove
• Two grooves of unequal width (major
groove and minor groove, the major
groove being wider than the minor
groove) because of the way the base
pairs stack and the sugar-phosphate
backbones twist.
• Important for gene expression
regulation because it allows DNA-
binding protein, such as transcription
factor to access DNA base-pair without
disrupting the helix.
25
26. Double helix groove
• Two grooves of unequal width (major
groove and minor groove, the major
groove being wider than the minor
groove) because of the way the base
pairs stack and the sugar-phosphate
backbones twist.
• Important for gene expression
regulation because it allows DNA-
binding protein to access DNA base-
pair without disrupting the helix.
26
27. Complementary base pairing
Two antiparallel strands form
a double helix.
Complementary base pairing
alone does not produce a helix.
3 H-bond
2 H-bond
28. Base-pairing rules
• Base-pairing rules, observation by Erwin Chargaff in 1950 that
the ratios of adenine to thymine and of guanine to cytosine
are nearly the same in all species, whereas the adenine-to-
guanine ratio varies considerably.
28
29. Weak forces stabilizes double
helix
1. Hydrogen bonds: between base
pairs
2. Hydrophobic effect: burying
hydrophobic purine and
pyrimidine in the interior
3. van der Waals force: from
stacking base pairs
4. Charge-charge interaction:
electrostatic repulsion of the
negatively charged phosphate
group of the backbone is
minimized by the presence of
cation, such as Mg2+
30. Double helix can be reversibly melted
• Under physiological conditions, dsDNA is thermodynamically
more stable than ssDNA.
• However, dsDNA can be denatured into ssDNA by heat or by a
chaotropic agent such as urea, by acid treatment and by ethanol.
• Inside the cell, a protein (helicases) use ATP to disrupt the helix.
• Melting temperature, Tm: the temperature at which half of the
DNA has become single stranded.
• Dissociation of strands is called melting while re-association is
called annealing.
30
Which base
pairing has higher
melting point?
31. DNA melting curve
• Melting curve analysis: an
assessment of the dissociation-
characteristics of double-
stranded DNA during heating.
• As the temperature is raised, the
double strand begins to dissociate
leading to a rise in the absorbance
intensity, hyperchromicity.
• ssDNA absorbs light more
effectively than does dsDNA.
31
32. DNA melting curve
• The absorbance of a DNA
solution at a wavelength
of 260nm increases when
the double helix is melted
into single strands.
• The melting temperature
(Tm) is defined as the
temperature at which half
of the DNA strands are in
single-stranded (ssDNA)
state.
32
33. The function of DNA melting
• This ability to melt and re associate is important for biological
function of nucleic acid
– Replication
– Transcription
– Repair
• In the lab:
– Search for homology between DNA molecules from two
different organisms
• DNA from 2 organisms melt reanneal if similar
hybrid DNA can form
– Locating genes in a cells DNA that correspond to a particular
RNA
• Use mRNA to probe denatured DNA
– PCR
33
34. DNA can assume a variety of structural
forms
34
Most of the DNA
in a cell is in the
B-form.
36. DNA replication
• Replication is the process by which a cell copies its DNA prior to
division. In humans, each parent cell must copy its entire six
billion base pairs of DNA before undergoing mitosis.
36
37. Conservative replication: the
original double-stranded DNA
molecule serves as the complete
template for a new DNA molecule.
Proposed DNA
replication mechanisms
38. Dispersive replication: the original
DNA molecule breaks into
fragments and the fragments serve
as templates for new DNA
fragments.
Proposed DNA
replication mechanisms
39. Semiconservative replication: the
two strands of the original DNA
molecule separate, and each
strand serves as a template for a
new DNA strand.
Proposed DNA
replication mechanisms
40. Semiconservative model
• After one round of replication, every
new DNA double helix would be
a hybrid that consisted of one strand of
old DNA bound to one strand of newly
synthesized DNA.
• Then, during the second round of
replication, the hybrids would separate,
and each strand would pair with a newly
synthesized strand.
• Afterward, only half of the new DNA
double helices would be hybrids; the
other half would be completely new.
• Every subsequent round of replication
therefore would result in fewer hybrids
and more completely new double
helices.
41. Differences in DNA density established the
validity of the semiconservative-replication
41
In 1958, Matthew Meselson and
Franklin Stahl carried out an experiment
to prove semiconservative replication
hypothesis. They labelled the E. coli
parent DNA with 15N, radioisotope.
After the incorporation of heavy
nitrogen was complete, the bacteria
were abruptly transfer to a new
medium containing 14N, radioisotope.
The position of a band of DNA
depends on its content of 14N
and 15N. After 1.0 generation,
all of the DNA molecules
were hybrids containing equal
amounts of 14N and 15N.
14N15N14N15N
42. DNA is replicated by polymerases that take
instruction from template
• DNA replication is the process of
producing two identical replicas from
one original DNA molecule.
• The reaction requires dNTPs (dATP,
dGTP, dCTP and dTTP), DNA
template, DNA polymerase, Mg+ ion
(DNA polymerase co-factor) and a
RNA primer (a short RNA fragment).
• The new DNA chain is assembled
directly on a preexisting DNA template.
• Elongation of the DNA chain proceeds
in the 5‘3’ direction.
42
43. Polymerization reaction catalyzed by DNA
polymerases
• DNA polymerase synthesizes the new DNA by adding
complementary nucleotides to the template strand with
creation of phosphodiester bond from 5‘3’ direction.
• DNA polymerases require a primer with a free 3’OH
bound to the template to initiate the synthesis.
• Many DNA polymerase are able to correct mistakes in
DNA by removing mismatched nucleotides (3‘5’
proofreading).
43
44. Polymerization reaction catalyzed by DNA
polymerases
• DNA polymerase cataylzes the formation of
phosphodiester bond from 5‘3’ direction.
44
45. The genes of some viruses are made of RNA
• The RNA genome of a retrovirus is converted into DNA by reverse
transcriptase.
• The function of reverse transcriptase
– Polymerase activity: Catalyzes the synthesis of a complementary
and second DNA strand
– Ribonuclease activity: Digests the RNA
45
46. Gene expression is the transformation of
DNA into functional molecules
• Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a
particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the
enzyme RNA polymerase. RNA encodes for protein.
• There are several types of RNA. They play key roles in gene
expression
46
47. Types of RNA
mRNA (messenger RNA) the template for protein synthesis or
translation
tRNA (transfer RNA) participate in protein synthesis
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) the major component of ribosome, catalyst
for protein synthesis
snRNA (small nuclear
RNA)
Participate in the splicing of RNA exons
miRNA (micro RNA) binds to complementary mRNA and inhibit
their translation
siRNA (small interfering
RNA)
binds to mRNA and facilitates their
degradation
47
48. All cellular RNA is synthesized by RNA
polymerase
• Transcription: the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template
catalyzed by RNA polymerase
• The reaction requires a template (dsDNA or ssDNA), NTPs (ATP,
GTP, UTP, CTP), RNA polymerase, co-factor (Mg2+, Mn2+)
48
49. Replication vs Transcription
Similarity Difference
Proceeds in 5’ 3‘ (Although DNA is read
from 3' end → 5' end during transcription,
the complementary RNA is created from the
5' end → 3' end direction).
RNA polymerase does
not require a primer to
initiate transcription.
Mechanism of elongation is similar The ability of RNA
polymerase to correct
mistakes is not as
extensive as that of DNA
polymerase
Synthesis is driven forward by hydrolysis of
pyrophosphate
49
RNA is synthesized by RNA
polymerases (transcription)
from ATP,UTP,CTP,GTP, require Mg2+.
50. Complementarity between mRNA and DNA
• The template strand/anti-sense strand (blue): It is the
complement of the mRNA (red).
• The coding strand/sense strand (black): The DNA strand has the
same sequence as the RNA transcript expect for thymine (T)
instead of uracil (U).
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52. Amino acids are encoded by groups of three
bases started from a fixed point
1. 3 nucleotides encode an amino acid. Genetic
experiments showed that an amino acid is in fact encoded
by a group of three bases (codon) - 20 aa, 4 bases.
2. The code is non overlapping (proposed by Dr Sydney
Brenner).
ABCDEFGHI
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53. Amino acids are encoded by groups of three
bases started from a fixed point
3. The code has no punctuation. Sequence of bases read
sequentially from a fixed point.
4. The genetic code is degenerate.
Most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon.
There are 64 possible triplets (4x4x4) and only 20 amino
acids. Three triplets (stop codons) designate the termination
of translation.
Codons that specify the same aa are called synonyms
eg. UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG are synonyms for serine
Most synonyms differ in the last base of the triplet.
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54.
55. The biological significance of codon
degeneracy
• If the code were not degenerate, 20 codons would designate
amino acid, 44 codon would lead to chain termination. Thus,
it increases the probability of mutating to chain termination,
leading to higher no. of short, inactive protein
• Change in single base of a codon result in synonym or amino
acid of similar chemical properties degeneracy minimizes
the deleterious effect of mutations
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56. The genetic code is nearly universal
• The genetic code is only “nearly universal”.
• mRNA of one species can be correctly translated by protein-
synthesizing machinery of another species.
• There are some differences eg, in mitochondria which encodes a
distinct set of tRNA.
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57. Most eukaryotic genes contain introns and
exons
• Prokaryotes polypeptides from continuous gene
• Lower eukaryotes, such as, yeast - higher proportion of
continuous gene
• Higher eukaryotes most genes are discontinuous.
• In 1977 discovered that eukaryotes genes are discontinuous
by Dr Richard Roberts and Dr Phillip Sharp (Nobel prize, 1993)
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58. Most eukaryotic genes contain introns and
exons
• Intron: nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed
by RNA splicing while the final mature RNA product of a gene is
being generated. The term intron (intragenic region) refers to
both the DNA sequence within a gene and the corresponding
sequence in RNA transcripts.
• Exon: sequences that are joined together in the final mature RNA
after RNA splicing.
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59. RNA processing generates mature RNA
• Pre-mRNA are larger than mRNA
• Pre-mRNA are spliced to form
mature mRNA.
• Splicing require excision and
rejoining.
• This is accomplished by a splicing
enzymespliceosomes.
• Introns are removed, exons are
kept.
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60. Evolution and intron
• Prokaryotes split genes are very rare, continuous
gene
• Lower eukaryotes such as yeast higher proportion of
continuous gene
• Eukaryotes most genes are split
• Have the introns been inserted in eukaryotes with
evolution? Or removed from genes?
• Studies suggest that introns were present in ancestral
genes
• Lost in evolution of organism that have become
optimized for very rapid growth, such as prokaryotes
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61. Many exons encode protein domains
• Many exons encode discrete structural and functional units of
proteins.
• Exon shuffling – new proteins arose in evolution by the
rearrangement of exons.
• Alternative splicing – generation of a series of related proteins
by splicing a nascent RNA transcript in different ways.
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Exon shuffling
62. Post-transcriptional modification:
RNA processing
• In eukaryotic cells, primary transcript RNA (pre-mRNA) is
converted into mature RNA.
• 5' capping - the addition of 7-methylguanosine (m7G) to the 5'
end.
• 3’ cleavage and polyadenylation - cleavage of its 3' end and then
the addition of about 250 adenine residues to form a poly(A) tail.
• RNA splicing - the process by which introns are removed from
the pre-mRNA
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65. Central dogma of biology
The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein: This
dogma forms the backbone of molecular biology and is represented
by four major stages.
1. The DNA replicates its information in a process that involves
many enzymes: replication.
2. The DNA codes for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA)
during transcription.
3. In eukaryotic cells, the mRNA is processed (essentially by
splicing) and migrates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
4. Messenger RNA carries coded information to ribosomes. The
ribosomes "read" this information and use it for protein synthesis.
This process is called translation.
• Proteins do not code for the production of protein, RNA or DNA.
They are involved in almost all biological activities, structural or
enzymatic.
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66. Can we create new class of DNA?
66
A semisynthetic organism engineered for the
stable expansion of the genetic
alphabet, PNAS, www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.10
73/pnas.1616443114
67. Summary
1. A nucleic acid consists of four kinds of bases linked to a sugar-
phosphate backbone.
2. A pair of nucleic acid chains with complementary sequences can
form a double helix.
3. The double helix facilitates the accurate transmission of
hereditary information.
4. DNA is replicated by polymerases that take instructions from
templates.
5. Gene expression is the transformation of DNA information into
functional molecules.
6. Amino acids are encoded by groups of three bases starting from a
fixed point.
7. Most eukaryotic genes contains introns and exons. 67
68. Study questions
1. What are the components of a nucleotide?
2. What are the similarities and difference between DNA and RNA?
3. What is the DNA directionality?
4. What are the nucleic acid structures?
5. What is the chemical bond joining DNA nucleotides?
6. What are the main features of DNA double helix?
7. What chemical forces are involved in stablization of DNA double helix?
8. Why is it important for DNA to be able to dissociate and associate?
9. What is a DNA semiconservative replication?
10. What are the similarities and difference between DNA replication and
DNA transcription?
11. Name the types of RNA.
12. What is the codon degeneracy?
13. What are three major steps involved in RNA processing?
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