The document provides information about DNA structure and organization. It begins with an overview of the central dogma of molecular biology and the levels of DNA structure. It then discusses the primary and secondary structure of DNA, including the Watson and Crick model of the DNA double helix. Specifically, it describes the antiparallel nature of the two strands, the complementary base pairing of A-T and G-C, and how base stacking and the spiral staircase formation contribute to the stability of the double helix. The document also addresses DNA packaging in eukaryotes through association with histone proteins into nucleosomes and higher order structures.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules and serve important functions like energy storage and providing structural materials. They range in size from small molecules to very large polymers. The document discusses the structures, properties and functions of important carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin and glycosaminoglycans which serve structural or energy storage roles in plants and animals.
The document summarizes electron transport chain which involves the passage of electrons through electron carrier molecules embedded in mitochondrial membranes. As electrons reach proton pumping channels, their energy drives protons out of the membrane, leading to ATP synthesis. Enzymes like NADH, FADH2, CoEnzyme Q, and Cytochrome C are involved in transferring electrons. The electron transport chain uses energy from electron transfers to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Each glucose molecule produces about 38 ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
This document discusses the structures, functions, and nomenclature of nucleotides and nucleic acids. It describes how nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group. Nucleotides function as energy carriers like ATP, cofactors like NAD+, and signal molecules like cAMP. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information through their roles in protein synthesis. The document outlines the four main types of RNA and their functions, and discusses the properties of nucleotide bases that allow nucleic acids to form specific three-dimensional structures.
Chapter 19 - Oxidative Phosphorylation and Photophosphorylation- BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
The document discusses two processes that cells use to synthesize ATP - oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. Both processes involve the flow of electrons through electron transport chains to establish a proton gradient across a membrane. In oxidative phosphorylation, the proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP, while in photophosphorylation light provides the energy to drive the process in chloroplasts. The chemiosmotic theory proposes that it is the flow of protons back through ATP synthase, not a direct chemical reaction, that provides the energy for ATP synthesis.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides play key roles as the monomers of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, as well as functioning as energy carriers like ATP and cofactors like NAD. Nucleic acids such as DNA contain the genetic information through base pairing and various structures enable different functions like protein synthesis and catalysis.
Chapter 14 - Glucose utilization and biosynthesis - BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that greatly accelerate chemical reactions in living organisms. They are typically proteins that precisely bind substrates in their active sites, properly orienting them and bringing reactive groups close together. This organization lowers the activation energy barrier for reactions. Enzymes achieve catalytic power by preferentially stabilizing the high-energy transition state of reactions more than the starting reactants or products. The active sites of enzymes are often complementary in shape and interactions to the transition states, not the ground states, of reactions.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules and serve important functions like energy storage and providing structural materials. They range in size from small molecules to very large polymers. The document discusses the structures, properties and functions of important carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin and glycosaminoglycans which serve structural or energy storage roles in plants and animals.
The document summarizes electron transport chain which involves the passage of electrons through electron carrier molecules embedded in mitochondrial membranes. As electrons reach proton pumping channels, their energy drives protons out of the membrane, leading to ATP synthesis. Enzymes like NADH, FADH2, CoEnzyme Q, and Cytochrome C are involved in transferring electrons. The electron transport chain uses energy from electron transfers to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Each glucose molecule produces about 38 ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
This document discusses the structures, functions, and nomenclature of nucleotides and nucleic acids. It describes how nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group. Nucleotides function as energy carriers like ATP, cofactors like NAD+, and signal molecules like cAMP. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information through their roles in protein synthesis. The document outlines the four main types of RNA and their functions, and discusses the properties of nucleotide bases that allow nucleic acids to form specific three-dimensional structures.
Chapter 19 - Oxidative Phosphorylation and Photophosphorylation- BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
The document discusses two processes that cells use to synthesize ATP - oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. Both processes involve the flow of electrons through electron transport chains to establish a proton gradient across a membrane. In oxidative phosphorylation, the proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP, while in photophosphorylation light provides the energy to drive the process in chloroplasts. The chemiosmotic theory proposes that it is the flow of protons back through ATP synthase, not a direct chemical reaction, that provides the energy for ATP synthesis.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides play key roles as the monomers of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, as well as functioning as energy carriers like ATP and cofactors like NAD. Nucleic acids such as DNA contain the genetic information through base pairing and various structures enable different functions like protein synthesis and catalysis.
Chapter 14 - Glucose utilization and biosynthesis - BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism that converts glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in most organisms and tissues as a source of energy. The first phase activates glucose through phosphorylation, while the second phase generates ATP and NADH through substrate-level phosphorylation and hydride transfer. Pyruvate produced can then undergo aerobic or anaerobic fates including fermentation to regenerate NAD+ under anaerobic conditions.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that greatly accelerate chemical reactions in living organisms. They are typically proteins that precisely bind substrates in their active sites, properly orienting them and bringing reactive groups close together. This organization lowers the activation energy barrier for reactions. Enzymes achieve catalytic power by preferentially stabilizing the high-energy transition state of reactions more than the starting reactants or products. The active sites of enzymes are often complementary in shape and interactions to the transition states, not the ground states, of reactions.
A quick revision of Carbohydrate metabolism with case- based discussions and ...Namrata Chhabra
Absorption of glucose, pathways of glucose utilization, TCA Cycle, Cori cycle, glycogen metabolism, metabolism of fructose and galactose, and disorders of carbohydrate metabolism
Chapter 16 - The citric acid cycle - BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
The document discusses cellular respiration, which occurs in three stages: 1) acetyl-CoA production from organic fuels like glucose and fatty acids, 2) acetyl-CoA oxidation in the citric acid cycle (CAC) to produce NADH, FADH2, and GTP, and 3) oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. The citric acid cycle involves a series of chemical reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These stages capture energy from nutrients and transfer it to ATP via electron transport chains located in cellular organelles like mitochondria.
The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondrion of aerobic organisms. It involves 8 reactions that completely oxidize a two-carbon acetyl group to carbon dioxide, producing reduced coenzymes like NADH and FADH2 that are used in ATP synthesis. The cycle is regulated by enzymes that respond to levels of ATP, NADH, and other products to adjust the rate of the cycle to meet cellular energy needs. A related glyoxylate cycle allows plants and bacteria to convert fatty acids into glucose for biosynthesis.
Phospholipids are a major component of biological membranes and can be classified into two main types: glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids. Glycerophospholipids contain fatty acids, glycerol, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The most abundant glycerophospholipid is phosphatidylcholine. Phospholipids play important structural and functional roles including membrane permeability, cell signaling, and lipid transport. Defects in phospholipid metabolism can cause lipid storage diseases where certain phospholipids accumulate due to enzymatic deficiencies.
The document discusses energy demand and supply as well as the integration of major metabolic pathways for energy metabolism. It outlines several key metabolic pathways including glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, degradation of amino acids, the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, the hexose monophosphate shunt, gluconeogenesis, and glycogen metabolism. It then describes how different organs specialize in carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism both during fed and starved states to regulate energy supply and demand at the organism level.
The document summarizes metabolism of phospholipids. Phospholipids are synthesized from phosphatidic acid and diacylglycerol in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial membranes. They perform important structural and signaling functions. Phospholipids are broken down by phospholipases which cleave phosphodiester bonds. The degraded products enter metabolic pools and are used for various purposes. Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase also plays a role in cholesterol transport.
Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in a multi-step process located in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the rate-limiting step and is regulated by transcription, covalent modification, and competitive inhibitors like statins. Cholesterol is transported by LDL and HDL and is used for cell membrane structure, steroid hormone synthesis, or storage.
The document summarizes two pathways - the hexose monophosphate (HMP) pathway and the uronic acid pathway. The HMP pathway, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, generates pentoses and NADPH through oxidative and non-oxidative phases involving multiple enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The uronic acid pathway is an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose that results in the synthesis of glucuronic acid, pentoses, and vitamin C, through a series of four phases including the formation of UDP-glucuronate and its conversion to L-gulonate.
Biochemistry - Ch4 protein structure , and function Areej Abu Hanieh
This document discusses the structure of proteins at multiple levels. It explains that a protein's amino acid sequence determines its 3D structure, and its structure dictates its function. Noncovalent interactions like hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic interactions are important forces that stabilize a protein's native structure. The peptide bond is rigid and planar, limiting the possible conformations of the polypeptide backbone. Common secondary structures like alpha helices and beta sheets form due to favorable hydrogen bonding patterns between peptide bonds.
explains the palmitate synthesis- which is most common FA stored in Adipose tissue , elongation system and Desaturation system, compares oxidation with synthesis.
This document provides an overview of lipid chemistry. It begins by defining lipids as water-insoluble organic molecules that can be extracted by non-polar solvents. Lipids make up 18-25% of body mass and include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. The document then discusses the biomedical importance of lipids as an energy source, for protection, insulation, in lipoproteins, bile salts, prostaglandins, hormones, and vitamins. It provides classifications of lipids including simple lipids like triglycerides, complex lipids, derived lipids, and others. The document concludes with discussions of fatty acid chemistry including saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, essential fatty acids, and lipid degradation
The document summarizes electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses:
1) The four complexes of the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that facilitate the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This creates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to generate ATP.
2) The enzymes, electron carriers like cytochromes and iron-sulfur proteins, and redox reactions involved in electron transport.
3) How the proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to drive ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.
4) Inhibitors and uncouplers that disrupt the proton gradient or electron transport.
Molecular biology is the study of macromolecules like nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life. The document discusses nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It defines DNA as containing the genetic material organized in chromosomes, while RNA plays important roles in protein synthesis. It describes the structures of nucleotides, DNA, RNA, and how DNA packages into chromatin and chromosomes.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
A quick revision of Carbohydrate metabolism with case- based discussions and ...Namrata Chhabra
Absorption of glucose, pathways of glucose utilization, TCA Cycle, Cori cycle, glycogen metabolism, metabolism of fructose and galactose, and disorders of carbohydrate metabolism
Chapter 16 - The citric acid cycle - BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
The document discusses cellular respiration, which occurs in three stages: 1) acetyl-CoA production from organic fuels like glucose and fatty acids, 2) acetyl-CoA oxidation in the citric acid cycle (CAC) to produce NADH, FADH2, and GTP, and 3) oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. The citric acid cycle involves a series of chemical reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These stages capture energy from nutrients and transfer it to ATP via electron transport chains located in cellular organelles like mitochondria.
The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondrion of aerobic organisms. It involves 8 reactions that completely oxidize a two-carbon acetyl group to carbon dioxide, producing reduced coenzymes like NADH and FADH2 that are used in ATP synthesis. The cycle is regulated by enzymes that respond to levels of ATP, NADH, and other products to adjust the rate of the cycle to meet cellular energy needs. A related glyoxylate cycle allows plants and bacteria to convert fatty acids into glucose for biosynthesis.
Phospholipids are a major component of biological membranes and can be classified into two main types: glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids. Glycerophospholipids contain fatty acids, glycerol, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The most abundant glycerophospholipid is phosphatidylcholine. Phospholipids play important structural and functional roles including membrane permeability, cell signaling, and lipid transport. Defects in phospholipid metabolism can cause lipid storage diseases where certain phospholipids accumulate due to enzymatic deficiencies.
The document discusses energy demand and supply as well as the integration of major metabolic pathways for energy metabolism. It outlines several key metabolic pathways including glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, degradation of amino acids, the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, the hexose monophosphate shunt, gluconeogenesis, and glycogen metabolism. It then describes how different organs specialize in carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism both during fed and starved states to regulate energy supply and demand at the organism level.
The document summarizes metabolism of phospholipids. Phospholipids are synthesized from phosphatidic acid and diacylglycerol in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial membranes. They perform important structural and signaling functions. Phospholipids are broken down by phospholipases which cleave phosphodiester bonds. The degraded products enter metabolic pools and are used for various purposes. Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase also plays a role in cholesterol transport.
Cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA in a multi-step process located in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytoplasm. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the rate-limiting step and is regulated by transcription, covalent modification, and competitive inhibitors like statins. Cholesterol is transported by LDL and HDL and is used for cell membrane structure, steroid hormone synthesis, or storage.
The document summarizes two pathways - the hexose monophosphate (HMP) pathway and the uronic acid pathway. The HMP pathway, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway, generates pentoses and NADPH through oxidative and non-oxidative phases involving multiple enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The uronic acid pathway is an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose that results in the synthesis of glucuronic acid, pentoses, and vitamin C, through a series of four phases including the formation of UDP-glucuronate and its conversion to L-gulonate.
Biochemistry - Ch4 protein structure , and function Areej Abu Hanieh
This document discusses the structure of proteins at multiple levels. It explains that a protein's amino acid sequence determines its 3D structure, and its structure dictates its function. Noncovalent interactions like hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic interactions are important forces that stabilize a protein's native structure. The peptide bond is rigid and planar, limiting the possible conformations of the polypeptide backbone. Common secondary structures like alpha helices and beta sheets form due to favorable hydrogen bonding patterns between peptide bonds.
explains the palmitate synthesis- which is most common FA stored in Adipose tissue , elongation system and Desaturation system, compares oxidation with synthesis.
This document provides an overview of lipid chemistry. It begins by defining lipids as water-insoluble organic molecules that can be extracted by non-polar solvents. Lipids make up 18-25% of body mass and include fats, oils, steroids, waxes, and related compounds. The document then discusses the biomedical importance of lipids as an energy source, for protection, insulation, in lipoproteins, bile salts, prostaglandins, hormones, and vitamins. It provides classifications of lipids including simple lipids like triglycerides, complex lipids, derived lipids, and others. The document concludes with discussions of fatty acid chemistry including saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, essential fatty acids, and lipid degradation
The document summarizes electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses:
1) The four complexes of the electron transport chain located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that facilitate the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. This creates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to generate ATP.
2) The enzymes, electron carriers like cytochromes and iron-sulfur proteins, and redox reactions involved in electron transport.
3) How the proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to drive ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.
4) Inhibitors and uncouplers that disrupt the proton gradient or electron transport.
Molecular biology is the study of macromolecules like nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life. The document discusses nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It defines DNA as containing the genetic material organized in chromosomes, while RNA plays important roles in protein synthesis. It describes the structures of nucleotides, DNA, RNA, and how DNA packages into chromatin and chromosomes.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
DNA carries genetic instructions in all living things. It is a double-stranded molecule shaped like a twisted ladder. Each strand has a backbone made of sugar and phosphate, with nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) forming rungs between the strands via hydrogen bonding. The structure was discovered in 1953 by Watson and Crick. DNA is found in the cell nucleus and mitochondria, where it stores and transmits hereditary information from parents to offspring that directs protein synthesis and cell functions.
DNA contains the instructions for development, life, and reproduction. It is a double-stranded helix made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine. The strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs, with adenine bonding to thymine and cytosine bonding to guanine. DNA stores genetic information, directs protein synthesis, determines genetic coding, and is responsible for heredity and cell functions.
This document discusses nucleotides, nucleic acids, and heredity. It begins by explaining that cells contain thousands of proteins and chromosomes carry hereditary information in genes made of DNA and histone proteins. The document then discusses that DNA carries genetic information in genes and each gene controls one protein. It describes the basic components and structures of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, including nucleotides, bases, nucleosides, and primary and secondary structures. It explains how DNA replicates and is amplified through PCR. The roles of different RNA types and protein synthesis are covered. The document concludes by discussing DNA repair through the base excision repair pathway.
The presentation covers all details of the DNA structure for an easy understanding of Molecular biology students. It covers the details of DNA structure, its bonds as well as the different conformations.
The document provides an overview of DNA, RNA, and the flow of genetic information. It describes the basic structures of nucleic acids including nucleotides, nucleosides, the sugar-phosphate backbone, and base pairing in DNA and RNA. It discusses the double helix structure of DNA proposed by Watson and Crick, including features such as directionality, grooves, and base pairing rules. It also covers DNA replication, noting that the semiconservative model in which each parental strand serves as a template for a new strand is accepted.
DNA structure and chromosome organization nadeem akhter
- Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins and store the genetic material of organisms. In eukaryotes, DNA is organized into chromosomes in the nucleus.
- DNA consists of two strands coiled into a double helix. Each strand contains nucleotides with a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine). The bases pair specifically between strands in the helix.
- Before cell division, DNA is replicated through a semiconservative process where each original strand acts as a template for a new partner strand. This results in two new DNA molecules each with one original and one new strand.
The document discusses the structure of DNA. It begins by describing DNA as a double-stranded polymer of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. Each strand has a 5' and 3' end. The two strands wind around each other in a double helix formation. Within this structure, the bases of one strand form hydrogen bonds with the complementary bases of the other strand according to A-T and G-C base pairing rules. The document then discusses the three forms DNA can take - B form, A form, and Z form - before concluding by describing linear and circular DNA structures found in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
This document provides an overview of DNA structure and properties. It discusses the discovery of DNA's double helix structure by Watson and Crick in 1953. It also describes the types of DNA (nuclear and mitochondrial), forms of DNA structure (A, B, and Z forms), and functions of DNA including storing genetic information and directing protein synthesis. Recent research discussed in the document found that peculiar Retron structures in bacteria act as "guards" for the bacterial immune system when infected by viruses.
This document provides an instruction on nucleic acid chemistry. It discusses topics including nucleosides and nucleotides, their composition and classification. It also discusses polynucleotides or nucleic acids, their classification and notations. For DNA, it describes the double helix model including its primary, secondary and tertiary structures. It also discusses how DNA is associated with proteins like histones and its general organization in the human genome. For RNA, it describes its base composition and different types including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA and their general structures and functions.
This document summarizes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins. It discusses macromolecules and how nucleic acids like DNA and RNA are polymers made up of nucleotides. DNA stores genetic information as a double-stranded molecule, while RNA processes this information and helps express proteins. The document goes on to describe properties of nucleic acids like stability, absorption of UV light, and thermal denaturation. It also discusses chromatin structure and how DNA is packaged into chromosomes using histone proteins and nucleosomes.
The presentation includes about the basic knowledge of Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA. It involves the definition, structure, occurence, quantity, chemical composition, stability, variety, types, molecular weight, complementary of base pairs, absorbance, viscosity, ionic interactions, alternative forms and functions of DNA.
1. DNA is composed of nucleotides which contain nitrogen bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine), pentose sugars (deoxyribose), and phosphates.
2. Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model for DNA structure in 1953 based on X-ray crystallography studies. Their model showed DNA as two antiparallel and complementary polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogen base pairs.
3. DNA exists in several forms including right-handed B-DNA, left-handed Z-DNA, and other forms like A-DNA and C-DNA that exist under certain conditions.
This document provides information about DNA structure and types. It begins with a timeline of important discoveries in DNA research. It then discusses the primary and secondary structures of DNA, including the double helix model proposed by Watson and Crick. It describes Chargaff's rules and the complementary base pairing of A-T and G-C. Finally, it summarizes the different forms of DNA like A, B, and Z-DNA and discusses mitochondrial DNA and unusual DNA sequences.
Similar to Nucleic acids med 2020-2021- l2&3-ayman-s (20)
This document provides an introduction to histology and histological techniques. It discusses the organization of the human body at the microscopic level and the main tools used to study tissues, including different microscopy techniques. It also covers the structure and functions of key cellular components, including the cell membrane, nucleus, organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and non-membranous components such as the cytoskeleton and ribosomes. The roles of these organelles in processes like protein synthesis, energy production and waste disposal are described.
This document provides an introduction to the field of histology and the techniques used to prepare and examine tissue samples microscopically. It outlines the objectives of studying histology as understanding the organization and microscopic structures of the human body. The key techniques discussed include fixing, processing, embedding, sectioning and staining tissue samples, as well as using light and electron microscopes to examine the prepared slides. The goal is to observe cells and tissues at a microscopic level.
This document provides an introduction to histology and histological techniques. It discusses the objectives of understanding tissue preparation, staining, and microscopy. The main focus is on describing the structure and function of cells and their organelles. Key points covered include the nucleus and its components, membranous organelles like the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Non-membranous structures like the cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes are also defined. The roles of these organelles in functions such as protein synthesis, energy production, and waste digestion are highlighted. Cell inclusions like pigments and glycogen are briefly mentioned as well.
The skeletal system consists of both axial and appendicular parts. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. The skull contains both single and paired bones that protect the brain and form cavities for sensory organs. The vertebral column is made up of vertebrae which vary based on region. The appendicular skeleton connects the limbs to the axial skeleton and includes the shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle and lower limbs. Long bones have a shaft and two ends, and different bone types serve various protective and movement functions.
1. cpp introduction to anatomy 2020 Dr.GamalJohn Diggle
This document provides an overview of general anatomy concepts including:
- Anatomy is the study of body structure and relationships between parts through dissection.
- Gross anatomy studies structures visible to the naked eye including surface, regional, and systemic anatomy.
- The anatomical position is used as a reference to describe body positions and structures.
- Anatomical planes and axes are used to describe body positions and motions.
- Common anatomical terms are defined including positions, movements, and directions related to the body.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
4. By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
1. Identify the structural components of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
2. Define primary & secondary structure of
DNA[Watson and Crick model].
3. Differentiate between different forms of DNA.
4. Demonstrate the different levels of DNA
packaging
5. 1. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology.
2. Structure and function of nucleic acids.
3. Structural components of DNA: Bases,
Nucleosides and Nucleotides.
4. Primary structure of DNA.
5. Watson and Crick model of DNA
6. secondary structure.
7. Different forms of DNA structure.
8. Levels of DNA packaging
9. Nucleases and their specificity.
10. Denaturation of DNA and melting
temperature.
9. 1. REPLICATION (DNA SYNTHESIS)
2. TRANSCRIPTION (RNA SYNTHESIS)
3. TRANSLATION (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS)
THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION
(The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology)
10. DNA Structure
DNA organization & packing
Levels of DNA structure
Primary & Secondary structure
11. DNA Primary Structure
• DNA are formed of four nucleotides:
d-AMP, d-GMP, d-TMP and d-CMP.
• In each strand, nucleotides are linked
together by phosphodiester bonds
between the 3` hydroxyl of one nucleotide
and 5`-hydroxyl of the next nucleotide.
•The alternating sugar phosphate units
form the backbone of each DNA strand
(5`-P-S-P-S-P-3`).
•The nitrogenous bases, which are linked
to the pentoses, are projecting to the
inside of the two strands of DNA at right
angle.
•The sequence of bases determines the
coding structure of DNA (genetic
information).
16. DNA Primary Structure
• Each polynucleotide strand has two terminals.
• One end has a free phosphate group attached
to 5`-hydroxyl group of the terminal pentose
and the other end has a free 3`-hydroxyl
group.
• The order of nucleotides in any DNA strand is
always written in the 5` to 3` direction e.g.
AGCT for the following chain.
19. Exonucleases
Exonucleases cleave the last nucleotide
residue in either of the two terminals of an
oligonucleotide.
Endonucleases
Endonucleases cleave phosphodiester bonds
located in the interior of polynucleotides.
20.
21. DNA Secondary Structure
The B-form of DNA
• Watson and Crick
proposed a structure
for DNA in the form
of a double helix and
it is now referred as
B-form of DNA,
which is the most
common
physiological form.
22. 1- Two antiparallel strands :
• The two strands of DNA are paired to each other.
• The two strands run antiparallel, that is to say, one runs in
the 5`⇒ 3` direction and the other in the 3` ⇒ 5` direction.
Watson and Crick Model of DNA Structure
• The sugar/phosphate backbone
(hydrophilic) is on the outside
while the nitrogen bases
(hydrophobic) project into the
inside of the double helix.
23. The Two Chains of DNA Are Antiparallel
5’pCpGpApTpCpGpApT-OH3’
5’ pApTpCpGpApTpCpG-OH 3’
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
24. • The alternating sugar
phosphate units form the
backbone of each DNA
strand (5`-P-S-P-S-P-3`).
• The nitrogenous bases,
which are linked to the
pentoses, are projecting to
the inside of the two strands
of DNA at right angle.
25. Watson and Crick Model of DNA
Structure
2- Complementary base pairing:
• The two strands are held together by the
complementary base pairing through specific
hydrogen bonds.
- Adenine pairs with thymine through two
hydrogen bonds, and
- guanine pairs with cytosine through three
hydrogen bonds.
• Therefore the number of adenine bases equals
the number of thymine bases and the number of
guanine bases equals the number of cytosine
bases in DNA.
28. Watson and Crick Model of DNA
Structure
• The sequence of the two strands is complementary.
• The sequence of one strand determines the
sequence of the second one.
• This is important during DNA replication as each of
the original DNA strands acts as a template for
synthesis of a new complementary strand to form
two daughter DNA molecules.
29.
30. Watson and Crick Model of DNA Structure
3- Base stacking
• The base pairs inside the helix are stacked above each
other by Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic
interactions.
• The hydrogen bonding between complementary base
pairs and the Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic
interactions of stacked base pairs provide the stability of
the double helix.
31. 4- Spiral staircase:
The two strands coil around a common axis
to form a right-handed helix.
The double helix of DNA appears much like
spiral staircase, in which there is 10 base pairs
or steps for each complete turn of the helix.
32. Watson and Crick Model of DNA
Structure
5- Dimensions
• The B-form of DNA is 2 nm wide and each
complete turn is 3.4 nm long.
• From outside of the helix, two grooves are
apparent, a major groove (2.2 nm) and a minor
groove (1.2 nm).
• Through these grooves many drugs and proteins
can make contact with the nitrogenous bases
without any need to open the helix.
33.
34. Factors afftecting DNA double helix
stability
1. Hydrogen bonding : stabilize.
• Between complementary base pairs
• Relatively weak but additive and facilitates stacking.
2. Stacking interactions: stabilize.
• The Hydrophobic interactions & the Van der Waals
forces of stacked base pairs.
3. Electrostatic interactions: destabilize.
• Contributed mainly by negative charges of
phosphates
• Affect intrastrand and interstrand interactions.
• Repulsion can be neutralized with positive charges
(e.g., positively charged Na+ ions or proteins).
35. Comparison between Different Forms of DNA
A-Form B-Form Z-Form
One turn span Shorter Medium
(3.4 nm)
Longer
Diameter Thicker Medium Thinner
Number of bp /turn 11 10 12
Appearance of turn Smooth Smooth Zigzag
Direction of double
helix
Right Right Left
36. Denaturation of DNA
•Is the separation of the two
strands of DNA, due to rupture
of hydrogen bonds, and the
formation of single-stranded
DNA.
•Disruptions of the double-
stranded structure appear first in
regions of relatively high
adenine-thymine content.
•It occurs at:
• High temperatures.
• Extreme pH ranges or
• Extreme ionic strengths
37. Denaturation of DNA
• The size of these “bubbles”
increases with increasing
temperatures, leading to
extensive disruptions in the
structure of the double helix at
elevated temperatures.
• At higher temperatures the
double-stranded structure of
DNA is completely disrupted,
with the eventual separation of
the strands and the formation of
single-stranded open coils.
• Cooling of denatured DNA results
in reformation of the double helix or
renaturation.
38. • Melting Temperature (Tm):
• It is the temperature at which ½
of DNA helix is ruptured and
separated/
• DNA rich in A and T bases(2
hydrogen bonds) has lower Tm
than that rich in C and G bases
(3 hydrogen bonds).
43. ORGANIZATION OF
EUKARYOTIC DNA
• Human DNA that has a length of ~2m must be
condensed so that it can fit within a nucleus with a
diameter of ~10µm.
• In order to fit within nucleus, DNA should be made
compact by various types of sequential folding that
are stabilized by DNA binding proteins to form
chromatin.
– In non-dividing (interphase) cells:
• Chromatin is amorphous and dispersed throughout the
nucleus.
– Just prior to cell division (metaphase):
• Chromatin becomes organized into highly compacted
structures called chromosomes.
44. ORGANIZATION OF
EUKARYOTIC DNA
• Organization of eukaryotic DNA requires
2 classes of DNA-binding proteins:
• The histones
• The non-histone proteins
45. ORGANIZATION OF EUKARYOTIC DNA
• Eukaryotic DNA is associated with tightly bound
basic proteins called histones, which serve to order
the DNA into basic structural units called
nucleosomes that resemble beads on a string.
• Nucleosomes are further arranged into increasingly
more complex structures that serve to organize and
condense the long DNA molecules into
chromosomes that can be segregated during cell
division.
46. A. Histone proteins
• Histones are small proteins that are positively
charged at physiologic pH due to their high content
of lysine and arginine.
• There are five classes of histones, designated H1,
H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.
• Because of their positive charge, they form ionic
bonds with the negatively charged DNA.
• Histones, along with positively charged ions such as
Mg2+ help neutralize the large negative charge of the
DNA phosphate groups.
47. • They include:
the various transcription factors.
polymerases.
hormone receptors
other nuclear enzymes.
B- The non-histone proteins
48. Different levels of DNA “packing”
1. Nucleosomes (First level of packing):
•The nucleosome is formed of:
• Core of 8 histone molecules:
•Formed of 2 moleules of each
H2A, H2B, H3 & H4
• DNA:
– Around this core a segment of the DNA
double helix is wound nearly twice,
forming a negatively super-twisted helix.
– A linker DNA of about 50 base pairs
connect neighboring nucleosomes
• Role of H1 histone
– H1 binds to the linker DNA
– H1 facilitates the packing of
nucleosomes into the more compact
structures.
49. Nucleosome structure
Nucleosome core
146 bp DNA;
1 3/4 turns of DNA;
DNA is negatively supercoiled.
Two each: H2A, H2B, H3, H4
(histone octomer).
Nucleosome (chromatosome):
~200 bp DNA;
2 turns of DNA plus spacer;
Also includes H1 histone.
50. 2. Higher levels of organization:
• Polynucleosome, also called a nucleofilament, (Second level of
packing):
• Nucleosomes are packed more tightly to form a
polynucleosome (nucleofilament).
• This structure assumes the shape of a coil, often referred to
as a 30-nm fiber.
• The 30-nm fiber is organized into loops that are anchored to
nuclear scaffold proteins. (Third level of packing)
• Additional levels of organization lead to the final chromosomal
structure
51. Higher structure of DNA
Chromatin fibers are
organized into loops, and the
loops into the bands
that provide the superstructure
of chromosomes.
53. 1. First level of packing:
• It is by formation of nucleosomes.
• It produces 10 fold shortening of the length of DNA (11 nm in
diameter).
• Adjacent nucleosomes are connected by a short length of spacer
DNA giving rise to extended polynucleosome (nucleofilament).
2. Second level of packing:
• Nucleosomes can be packed more tightly to form a
polynucleosome involving 6 to 7 Nucleosome (chromatosomes)
per turn.
• This structure assumes the shape of a cylindrical coil (Solenoid).
• This leads to 50-fold shortening of the DNA (30 nm in diameter).
3. Third level of packing:
• The 30 nm fiber is organized into loops that are anchored by a
nuclear protein scaffold.
• Additional levels of organization lead to the final chromosomal
structure.
54. 1. Nucleosome core:
- Histone core + 1 ¾ turn (146 bp).
- Reduce DNA length by a factor of 10.
2. Nucleosome (Chromatosome) (11nm Diameter):
- Histone core + 2 turn (166 bp) + H1.
3. Nucleofilament (10 nm Diameter):
- Nucleosomes + Linker DNA ~20 – 90 bp.
- Extended polynucleosome chain.
- Has “ beads–on-a-string” appearance.
4. Polynucleosome (chromatin fiber) (30 nm Diameter):
- 6 to 7 nucleosomes per turn.
- Solenoid arrangment.
- Reduce DNA length by a factor of 50.
5. Metaphase chromosome (1400 nm Diameter).
* Histones may regulate DNA packaging by various in vivo reactions:
e.g. Methylation , acetylation & phosphorylation.
ORGANIZATION OF
EUKARYOTIC DNA
56. Fate of nucleosomes during DNA replication
• In order to replicate, the highly structured and constrained
chromatin must be relaxed.
• Dissociation of the nucleosome core from the DNA is
incomplete, (the parental histones remain loosely associated
with only one of the parental DNA strands).
• Synthesis of new histones occurs simultaneously with DNA
replication, and nucleosomes containing only newly
synthesized histones associate with only one of the new
daughter helices.
• Therefore, the parental histone octamers are conserved.
65. What is a genome?!
All the genetic
information
In eukaryotes it is
presented in
chromosomes
66. Genome structure
• Genome is the total genetic information
presented by the group of chromosomes
in any cell.
• The chromosomes that form the genome
differ in both length and number according
to the species.
68. • Viruses are composed of nucleic acids
enclosed in a protective protein coat
(capsid).
• The nucleic acids of viruses may be:
- A single or double stranded DNA (ssDNA
or ds DNA) OR
- A single or double stranded RNA (ssRNA
or dsRNA).
Viruses
71. Prokaryotic DNA and Chromosomes
• Prokaryotic organisms include bacteria
and blue- green algae.
Blue green algaeBacteria
72. Prokaryotic DNA and
Chromosomes
• Each cell contains one
single double-stranded
supercoiled circular
chromosome and has
no nuclear membrane.
• The chromosome is
associated with
histone-like proteins.
73. Prokaryotic DNA and Chromosomes
• Total chromosomal DNA codes for specific
proteins.
• The structural genes (nucleotide sequence
coding for proteins) do not always have
distinct physical locations on DNA.
• They frequently overlap with one another.
Protein A
Protein B
DNA
Gene B
Gene A
74. Prokaryotic DNA and
Chromosomes
• In addition, most species
of bacteria also contain
small and circular extra
chromosomal DNA
molecules called plasmids.
• Plasmid DNA carries
genetic information and
undergoes replication that
may or may not be
synchronized to
chromosomal division.
• Plasmids may carry genes
that convey antibiotic
resistance to the host
bacterium.
75. Eukaryotic DNA
• Only 2% of DNA code for proteins.
• The structural genes do not overlap.
• Eukaryotic genes are discontinuous (with few exceptions e.g. the
genes for histones & tRNA)
• Eukaryotic genes are formed of:
– Coding sequences:
• Called exons or expressed sequences
• They are unique and non-repetitive are interrupted by
– Non-coding sequences:
• Called introns or intervening sequences
• They are repetitive and
• Forms 25 – 35 % of the genome.
77. 1. Nuclear genome
• Human genome consists of:
• 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes
• With a total of 6×10 9 base pairs,
• Contains about 20,000 – 25,000 genes
2. Mitochondrial genome
• Circular genome of ~17,000 bp.
• Contains < 40 genes
Human Genome
78.
79. Genes:
• Vary in length from <100 to >2,300,000 bp.
• Most genes are single-copy in the haploid genome.
• Most of the eukaryotic genes are discontinuous
(with few exceptions e.g. the genes for histones &
tRNA) formed of:
• Exons (coding sequences which are unique and
non-repetitive) separated by
• Introns (non coding sequences which are
repetitive and forms 20 – 30 % of the genome
• Genes are composed of from 1 to >75 exons.
80. 5’ 3’
promoter
region
exons (filled and unfilled boxed regions)
introns (between exons)
transcribed region
translated region
mRNA structure
+1
Gene structure
81. The (exon- intron- exon)n structure of various genes
β-globin
HGPRTase
total = 1,660 bp; exons = 990 bp
Histone
Factor VIII
total = 400 bp; exon = 400 bp
total = 42,830 bp; exons = 1263 bp
total = ~186,000 bp; exons = ~9,000 bp
84. Test yourself
1. Which statement is true about the double helix:
a. Heating causes the strands to separate (denature).
b. GC pairs involve three hydrogen bonds.
c. Purine pairs with pyrimidine.
d. All of the above.
2. If a DNA molecule is composed of 40% (T) what percentage
of guanine would be expected:
a. 10%.
b. 20%.
c. 40%.
d. 80%.
3. All of the following are true about DNA EXCEPT:
a. Guanine usually pairs with cytosine and thymine with adenine.
b. A double helix formed of two antiparallel strands.
c. The sugar-phosphate backbone is positively charged.
d. Base stacking stabilizes the double helix.
85. Test yourself
4. Nucleases are enzymes that catalyze cleavage of:
a. Peptide bond.
b. Glycosidic bond.
c. Hydrogen bond.
d. Phosphodiester bond.
5. All of the following statements regarding the Watson-
Crick "B" form of DNA are true EXCEPT:
a. Two chains are coiled around a common axis forming
a right- handed helix.
b. The bases are found on the outside of the helix and the
sugar phosphate backbone on the inside.
c. The two chains run in opposite directions.
d. Adenine is always paired with thymine, guanine with
cytosine.
86. Test yourself
6. All of the following are true about eukaryotic genes EXCEPT:
a. Most of eukaryotic genes are discontineous.
b. They are always overlapping.
c. Coding sequences are unique and non repetitive.
d. They contain a regulatory sequence and a coding sequence.
7. The following statements describes both human and bacterial
DNA EXCEPT:
a. The DNA occurs physiologically as nucleosome complexes.
b. The DNA contains major and minor grooves.
c. The DNA consists of an antiparallel duplex.
d. The DNA contains equal molar fractions of adenine and thymine.
e. The DNA contains equal molar fractions of guanine and cytosine.
87. Test yourself
1. In DNA double helix, the alternating sugar
phosphate units form the backbone while
the nitrogenous bases are projecting to the
outside.
2. Exonucleases cleave phosphodiester bonds
located in the interior of polynucleotides.
3. The two strands of DNA double helix are held
together by the complementary base pairing
through specific hydrogen bonds.
4. Melting Temperature (Tm) is the temperature
at which the two strands of DNA double helix is
completely ruptured and separated.
5. Each DNA strand has two terminals one end has a
free phosphate group attached to 5`-hydroxyl group
of the terminal pentose and the other end has a free
3`-hydroxyl group.
88. Test yourself
6. Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is RNA
virus; its genome is formed of two copies of dsRNA.
7. Prokaryotic genome consists of one single double-
stranded supercoiled circular chromosome
8. Plasmid DNA is small and circular extra chromosomal
DNA molecules that present in bacteria and
undergoes replication that is always synchronized to
chromosomal division.
9. Human genome consists of 46 chromosomes that
contain about 120,000 genes coding for about 120,000
proteins.
10. Most of the eukaryotic genes are continuous
sequences and genes are usually overlapping.
89. Test yourself
10. Most of the prokaryotic genes are continuous
sequences and genes are usually overlapping.
11. Eukaryotic genes consist of coding sequences
(exons) interrupted by intervening sequences (introns).