1. In the 15th-16th centuries, Europe experienced population growth, economic expansion, and the rise of cities, driven by demographic recovery, greater trade, banking improvements, and geographic discoveries. 2. Society changed as the bourgeoisie emerged as a new powerful class alongside the traditional clergy, nobility, and peasant estates. In Western Europe, peasants also gained more freedom and improved conditions. 3. More powerful monarchies developed across Europe through centralizing power, strengthening armies, increasing taxes, and establishing diplomacy. Notable new states included France, England, Spain, and Russia under strong authoritarian rule. 4. In Iberia, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of A