This document discusses speciation and the evolution of new species. It defines different types of speciation, including allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric speciation. Reproductive isolation is a key factor in speciation, with both prezygotic barriers that prevent interbreeding and postzygotic barriers affecting the viability of hybrid offspring. Speciation occurs over long periods of time through either gradual evolution or punctuated equilibrium. The document also covers taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, extinction, and adaptive radiation.
To determine the variation and the limitation between species, many concepts have been proposed.
When a taxonomist study a particular taxa, he/she must adopted a species concept and provide a species limitation to define this taxa.
Plant kingdom as other living kingdoms has a hierarchy structure ends mostly with species rank.
Species are one of the basic units to compare in almost all fields of biology.
A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction.
Definition of a species as a group of interbreeding individuals cannot be easily applied to organisms that reproduce only or mainly asexually.
If two lineages of oak look quite different, but occasionally form hybrids with each other, should we count them as different species?
Idea of a species is something that we humans invented for our own convenience.
‘‘No matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as distinguish a species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa” - JOHN RAY.
Used a sexual system ‘‘natural system” for defining species - LINNAEUS.
‘‘A species is a collection of all the individuals which resemble each other more than they resemble anything else, which can by natural fecundation produce fertile individuals, and which reproduce themselves by generation, in such a manner that we may from analogy suppose them all to have sprung from one single individual” - DE CANDOLLE.
To determine the variation and the limitation between species, many concepts have been proposed.
When a taxonomist study a particular taxa, he/she must adopted a species concept and provide a species limitation to define this taxa.
Plant kingdom as other living kingdoms has a hierarchy structure ends mostly with species rank.
Species are one of the basic units to compare in almost all fields of biology.
A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction.
Definition of a species as a group of interbreeding individuals cannot be easily applied to organisms that reproduce only or mainly asexually.
If two lineages of oak look quite different, but occasionally form hybrids with each other, should we count them as different species?
Idea of a species is something that we humans invented for our own convenience.
‘‘No matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental variations and not such as distinguish a species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa” - JOHN RAY.
Used a sexual system ‘‘natural system” for defining species - LINNAEUS.
‘‘A species is a collection of all the individuals which resemble each other more than they resemble anything else, which can by natural fecundation produce fertile individuals, and which reproduce themselves by generation, in such a manner that we may from analogy suppose them all to have sprung from one single individual” - DE CANDOLLE.
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which reproductively isolated biological populations evolve to become distinct species.There are few mechanisms through which this process can be well understood.
The process by which a new species develops from the existing species is known as speciation.
Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.
A species can be defined as one or more populations of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated in nature from all other organisms.
When populations no longer interbreed, they are thought to be separate species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, Parapatric, and sympatric.
Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments.
Allopatric speciation: It is regarded as the most common type of speciation. It involves the physical separation of a species into two groups. This may occur due to climatic changes, movement of tectonic plates leading to the fragmentation of a mass of land, or eruption of a land mass, formation of waterways, or due to the presence of an impassable mountain range.
Parapatric mode of speciation: It occurs due to partial spatial isolation of populations, and is characterized by a small overlap in their ranges as well as significant gene flow amongst the populations. However, the gene flow reduces due to changes in the local conditions, and the two populations become reproductively isolated.
Sympatric mode of speciation: It involves the formation of new species due to a genetic divergence among a few members of the species inhabiting a single geographic area. Unlike the other modes of speciation, here genetic divergence does not arise due to increase in geographic distance, but occurs within the same niche.
Peripatric speciation was Proposed by Ernst Mayr. In this type of speciation, a small group of members inhabiting a peripheral region of the range undergo reproductive isolation to form a new species. Many a time, it is considered to be a variation of allopatric speciation.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
This presentation file has these contents:
Evolution
Convergent Evolution
Analogous structures
Divergent Evolution
Homologous structures
Parallel Evolution
Coevolution
Types of Evolution
Macroevolution
Microevolution
Importance of pattern of evolution
This document will help you and will clear your concepts about the terms of Orthogenesis, Allometry & Adaptive Radiations, which are usually studied in evolution.
This presentation is uploaded by Mahar Tanvir ul Hassan Tibbi Tarhana Samandry Faisalabad Pakistan. I am enrolled in University of Sargodha in MSc Zoology.
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which reproductively isolated biological populations evolve to become distinct species.There are few mechanisms through which this process can be well understood.
The process by which a new species develops from the existing species is known as speciation.
Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.
A species can be defined as one or more populations of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated in nature from all other organisms.
When populations no longer interbreed, they are thought to be separate species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, Parapatric, and sympatric.
Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments.
Allopatric speciation: It is regarded as the most common type of speciation. It involves the physical separation of a species into two groups. This may occur due to climatic changes, movement of tectonic plates leading to the fragmentation of a mass of land, or eruption of a land mass, formation of waterways, or due to the presence of an impassable mountain range.
Parapatric mode of speciation: It occurs due to partial spatial isolation of populations, and is characterized by a small overlap in their ranges as well as significant gene flow amongst the populations. However, the gene flow reduces due to changes in the local conditions, and the two populations become reproductively isolated.
Sympatric mode of speciation: It involves the formation of new species due to a genetic divergence among a few members of the species inhabiting a single geographic area. Unlike the other modes of speciation, here genetic divergence does not arise due to increase in geographic distance, but occurs within the same niche.
Peripatric speciation was Proposed by Ernst Mayr. In this type of speciation, a small group of members inhabiting a peripheral region of the range undergo reproductive isolation to form a new species. Many a time, it is considered to be a variation of allopatric speciation.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
This presentation file has these contents:
Evolution
Convergent Evolution
Analogous structures
Divergent Evolution
Homologous structures
Parallel Evolution
Coevolution
Types of Evolution
Macroevolution
Microevolution
Importance of pattern of evolution
This document will help you and will clear your concepts about the terms of Orthogenesis, Allometry & Adaptive Radiations, which are usually studied in evolution.
This presentation is uploaded by Mahar Tanvir ul Hassan Tibbi Tarhana Samandry Faisalabad Pakistan. I am enrolled in University of Sargodha in MSc Zoology.
Evolution is a very complex, irreversible and extremely slow process. the events related to theories of evolution and evidences of evolution are discussed. Theories of origin of life are as follows. 1)Theory of Special creation or devine origin 2) The theory of spontaneous generation/ Abiogenesis 3)Spallanzani experiment 4) Redi Experiment (1680) 5) Pasteurs Experiment (1864) 6) Panspermia 7) Theory of Catastrophism ( G,Cuvier) 8) Naturalistic theory ( Oparin & Haldane, 1920)
The evolutionary development or history of a species or of a taxonomic group of organisms (The phylogeny of a group of taxa (singular: taxon) (species, etc.) is its evolutionary history)
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. Evolution
• Microevolution—Relatively short term
changes in ALLELE FREQUENCIES within a
population or species
• Macroevolution—Large scale evolutionary
changes
– Over long periods
– Small scale microevolution leads to
macroevolution
3. Biological Species Concept
• Species—Group of populations whose
members have the potential to interbreed in
nature and produce viable, fertile offspring,
but do not produce viable offspring with
members of other groups.
• What maintains species?
– Gene flow
– Reproductive isolation (biological)
4. Other Species Definitions
• Morphological Species Concept
– Characterizes by body shape and other structures
• Ecological Species Concept
– Characterizes in terms of ecological niche
• Phylogenetic Species Concept
– Smallest group of organisms that share a common
ancestor
5. Reproductive Isolation
• Prezygotic Barriers—block fertilization from
happening
– Prevent different species from attempting to mate
– Prevent an attempted mating from being successful
– Hindering fertilization
• Postzygotic Barriers—occur after zygote is
formed
– Developmental errors
– Birth defects cause death
– Infertile offspring
6. Prezygotic Reproductive Isolating
Barriers
• Behavioral isolation—Absence of cross-attraction between individuals of
separate species inhibiting any courtship initiation or individual behavior
during copulation does not allow normal fertilization to occur.
• Ecological isolation—Variations in the ecology of species give rise to
barriers:
– Habitat isolation—Even when living in the same common locality, species
occupy diverse habitats due to different biological or genetic tendencies
thereby limiting gene flow during breeding seasons.
– Temporal isolation—Species living in the same area have different breeding
seasons preventing gene flow.
– Pollinator isolation—Flowering plants have varying interactions with
pollinators thereby reducing gene flow.
• Mechanical isolation—Reproductive structures are incompatible between
species inhibiting copulation or pollination.
• Gametic isolation–Gametes that are transferred during copulation or
pollination are ineffectual for fertilization due to problems with storage or
transfer of gametes or because of conspecific pollen or sperm partiality.
12. Postzygotic Reproductive Isolating
Barriers
• Ecological unviability—Although normal development
occurs, hybrids cannot find a suitable ecological niche
thereby lowering viability.
• Hybrid unviability—Hybrid species have developmental
issues causing complete or incomplete lethality.
• Behavioral sterility—Although normal gametogenesis
occurs, hybrids are less fertile and typically exhibit
phenotypes or courtship behaviors that make them less
desirable mates.
• Hybrid sterility—Hybrids can have developmental problems
of the reproductive organs or gametes, or can suffer from
physiological or neurological issues that prevent effective
courtship.
14. Speciation
• Development of a new species through a
variety of factors
• Rate of speciation depends on generation
time, environmental conditions, etc.
• Can be caused by a change in just 1 gene or a
set of genes causing some sort of isolation
15. Types of Speciation
• Allopatric Speciation—gene flow is interrupted when a
population is divided into geographically isolated
subpopulations
• Parapatric Speciation—occurs when part of a population
enters a new habitat bordering the range of the parent
species
– Some gene flow may occur between populations in border zone
• Sympatric Speciation—occurs in populations that live in
the same geographic area
– Less common than allopatric speciation
– Happens when gene flow is diminished by:
• Polyploidy
• Habitat differentiation
• Sexual selection
19. Sympatric Speciation
Apple maggot flies (Rhagoletis pomonella) on domestic apple (left) and on much smaller
native hawthorn fruits (right). Flies that emerge from a given host generally return to
mate and lay eggs on the same type of fruit.
20. How Does Speciation Occur?
• Gradualism—one species gradually
transforming into another through a series of
intermediate forms
– Evolutions occurs in small, incremental changes
over MANY generations
– Should be able to see in fossil record but we do
not – intermediate forms NOT present in fossils
• Fossil record incomplete or;
• Missing links too rare in fossils or;
• See next slide
22. How Does Speciation Occur?
• Punctuated Equilibrium—relatively brief
bursts of rapid evolution interrupting long
periods of little change
– Fits with allopatric speciation
– Can occur during adaptive radiation—population
inhabiting a patchy environment gives rise to
multiple specialized forms in short time period
• Common in island groups
24. GULF
OF
MEXICO
Florida
ATLANTIC OCEAN
CUBA
PUERTO
RICO
JAMAICAHISPANIOLA
Adaptive
Radiation A. loysiana
Upper trunk/canopy
A. evermanni
Midtrunk
Lower trunk/ground
A. cristatellus
Grass/bush
A. pulchellus
26. Extinction
• A species goes extinct when ALL of its
members die.
• Many factors can cause—climate,
reproductive barriers, disease.
• No matter what it is, it is a FAILURE of that
species to adapt to the new conditions
• More prevalent in small, less genetically
diverse populations
27. Types of Extinction
• Background Extinction—gradual loss of species
over time.
– Loss of habitat, small climate change, etc.
• Mass Extinction—many number of species
disappeared over a relatively short period of
time.
– Open up new habitats for adaptive radiation
– Two theories:
• Impact Theory—meteor, comet crashes into earth making it
inhabitable for the life there
• Movement of Earth’s Crust—causes dramatic environmental
changes
28. Taxonomy
• How we name and classify organisms
• Binomial Nomenclature
– First name—Genus
– Second name—Species
– Homo sapiens
• Organisms are classified based on a hierarchy
of more specific categories
29.
30. Phylogeny
• Phylogeny—Depiction of species relationships
based on descent from shared ancestors
• Phylogenetic Trees—pictures of these
relationships
– Anatomical features of fossils and living creatures
– Behaviors
– Physiological adaptations
– Molecular sequences
31. Cladistics
• Phylogenetic system based on ancestral and
derived characteristics
– Ancestral Characteristics—inherited attributes and
RESEMBLE those of ancestor
– Derived Characteristics—features that are different
from ancestors group
– Monophyletic—Group of organisms with 1 common
ancestor and ALL the descendants
– Paraphyletic—Group of organisms with 1 common
ancestor and some, but not all descendants
– Polyphyletic—Group of organisms that EXCLUDES the
most recent common ancestor
38. Phylogenetics and Cladistics Cheat
Sheet
Term Definition
Ancestral characters a trait inherited from the ancestor of a clade
Clade a group consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants—a single "branch" on the "tree of life”
Cladistics the science that tries to reconstruct phylogenetic trees and thus discover clades
Cladogram tree-shaped diagrams; the result of cladistic analyses
Derived characters a trait that has evolved—not from the common ancestor of the clade
Monophyletic group a taxon (group of organisms) which forms a clade
Outgroup a monophyletic group of organisms that serve as a reference group when determining the evolutionary
relationship among three or more monophyletic groups of organisms
Paraphyletic group a group that consists of all the descendants of the last common ancestor of the group's members minus a
small number of monophyletic groups of descendants
Phylogenetic tree a branching diagram or "tree" showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological
species or other entities—their phylogeny—based upon similarities and differences in their physical or genetic
characteristics
Polyphyletic group a group characterized by one or more homoplasies: character states which have converged or reverted so as
to appear to be the same but which have not been inherited from common ancestors
Systemactics the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living
things through time
Left: “Western Terrestrial Garter Snake Juvie” by James Bettaso. (Public Domain). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Western_terrestrial_garter_snake_juvie.jpg
Right: “Aquatic Garter Snake” by SarahStierch. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aquatic_Garter_Snake_-_Stierch_B.jpg
Left: “Spilogale Putorius” by the National Park Service. (Public Domain). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spilogale_putorius_(2).jpg
Right: “Spilogale Gracilis” by Brian Kentosh. Released into the public domain by the copyright holder. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spilogale_gracilis_amphiala.jpg
“Fiddler Crab” by NOAA. (Public Domain). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fiddler_crab.jpg
Image from Boundless
“Mushroom coral” by Brocken Inaglory. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muchroom_coral.JPG
Top left: “AAV Stute” by Seviwurst. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AAV-Stute-2.jpg
Top right: “Donkey 1 ARP” by Adrian Pingstone. Released into public domain by the copyright holder. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donkey_1_arp_750px.jpg
Bottom: “Maultier Grau” by Summi. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maultier_grau.jpg
“Speciation modes” by Ilmari Karonen. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Speciation_modes.svg
Image from Boundless
Top: “Ephedra californica” by Stan Shebs. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ephedra_californica_1.jpg
Map: “US Locator Blank” by Papayoung. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Locator_Blank.svg
Bottom: “Ephedra trifurca” by Dcotetzee. Licensed under a CC-0 1.0 license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ephedra_trifurca.jpg
Image and caption from Boundless
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REPLACE IMAGE
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Images from Boundless
REPLACE IMAGE
“Morphology Molecular Genetics” by Wang Y, Zhao J, Yang J, Zhou Z, Chen G, Liu Y. Licensed under a CC-BY 4.0 International license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morphology-Molecular-Genetics-and-Bioacoustics-Support-Two-New-Sympatric-Xenophrys-Toads-(Amphibia-pone.0093075.g002.jpg
“Artiodactylamorpha” by C. Buell and L. Betti-Nash. Licensed under a CC-BY 2.5 Generic license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artiodactylamorpha.png
REPLACE IMAGE
Image from Boundless
“Monophyly, Paraphyly, Poplyphyly” by Petter Bockman. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license.