1) Cell biology is the study of cells, the fundamental unit of life. Key discoveries included Hooke observing cells in 1665 and van Leeuwenhoek improving microscopy. The cell theory established that cells are the basic unit of life.
2) Microscopy revolutionized cell biology by allowing observation of subcellular structures. Light microscopes use visible light while electron microscopes use beams of electrons for higher magnification.
3) Key cellular structures include the nucleus that houses DNA, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts that generate energy, and the endomembrane system involved in protein transport and modification.
Most relevant information about the cell, its discovery, types and various kinds of organelles and their function. it also focus on how molecules are transported across the cell membrane.
2018/2019
This PowerPoint, designed by East Stroudsburg University student Kristen O'Connor, is a PowerPoint designed for middle school science students on cell organelles.
Most relevant information about the cell, its discovery, types and various kinds of organelles and their function. it also focus on how molecules are transported across the cell membrane.
2018/2019
This PowerPoint, designed by East Stroudsburg University student Kristen O'Connor, is a PowerPoint designed for middle school science students on cell organelles.
Levels of organization life.
Atome-molecules-cells-tissues-organ-system-organism to the ecospehere.
With interactives exercises for the classroom lesson.
www. biodeluna.wordpress.com/
Levels of organization life.
Atome-molecules-cells-tissues-organ-system-organism to the ecospehere.
With interactives exercises for the classroom lesson.
www. biodeluna.wordpress.com/
CELL STRUCTURE, CELL ORGANELLES, CELL FUNCTIONS.
BRIEF IDEA ABOUT CELL STRUCTURE, CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS, COMPARTMENTALIZATION INSIDE CELL
Lecture#01 (Cell structure and function).pptxSabaMahmood22
In this slide I have described basic molecular biology of cell. I have discussed cell theory. Formation of cell theory and it's working. Moreover briefly discussed cell structure and organelles with their functions.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. Cells
• Cell – Smallest unit of life that can function
independently
– Discovered by Robert Hooke – 1660
– Antony van Leeuwenhoek – improved lenses,
made observing cells easier
• Cell Theory – Schleiden, Schwann
– All organisms are made of one or two cells
– Cell fundamental unit of all life
5. History of Cell Biology
Anton von Leeuwenhoek
1673-1723
Leeuwenhoek Microscope
(circa late 1600s)
6. History of Cell Biology
Cell Theory: 1800s
Theodor Schwann Matthias Schleiden
7. Microscopes
• Microscope uses an energy source (light, electrons,
ect.) to view objects under magnification
– Can view things that you cannon view with the naked eye
– Light Microscopes – uses light to view things in real color,
item must be thin enough to get light thru.
• Compound – uses 2 or more lenses to focus visible light through
a specimen, magnify 1600 times
• Confocal – focus white or laser light through a lens to the
object.
– Electron Microscopes – MUCH higher magnification
• Transmission – Sends beam of electrons through a sample
• Scanning – Sends beam of electrons over the surface of object
9. Resolution
Resolution: ability to distinguish two points as
distinct
Picture created and printed at a
high resolution
Picture created and printed at a
low resolution
16. Cell Structures
• All cells have these structures:
– DNA
– RNA
– Ribosomes – make proteins
– Proteins
– Cytoplasm – fluid filling of the cell
– Cell Membrane – makes a boundary between
inside and outside of cell
17. Types of Cells – Prokaryotic
• Lack a true nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
• Domains Bacteria and Archaea
• Structures:
– Nucleoid – contains cells DNA, NOT bound by a
membrane
– Cell Wall – rigid, outside of cell membrane, gives
cell its shape (rod-shaped, round, spiral)
– Flagella – whip-like tail for movement
18. Types of Cells - Eukaryotic
• All other cells except for bacteria, archaea
– Plants, animals, protists, fungi
• Domain – Eukarya
• Have MEMBRANE BOUND organelles, larger
than prokaryotic
• 2 basic types of eukaryotic cells
– Animal
– Plant
19.
20.
21. Cell Membrane
• Function:
– Separate cell from environment
– Transport substances in and out of cell
– Receive and respond to stimuli
• Properties
– Hydrophobic and hydrophilic
– Selectively permeable
• Structure:
– Phospholipid bi-layer
– Fluid mosaic of phospholipids, sterols, proteins
27. Endoplasmic Reticulum and
Ribosomes
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
– Function: Help make cell membrane and secretory
proteins for various bodily functions
• In pancreas, insulin; leukocytes, antibodies
– Structure: Connected to nuclear envelop and cell
membrane with ribosomes on outside
• Smooth ER
– Function: Make and store proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
• In liver, enzymes for detox; muscle, proteins for contraction
– Structure: Same as smooth ER – ribosomes
• Ribosomes
– Function: Assemble proteins for the cell
– Structure: Large and small subunits
28. The Endomembrane System
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: makes secreted and
membrane proteins, and proteins destined for some organelles
29. The Endomembrane System
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: synthesizes lipids,
steroids, detoxifies
32. Golgi Apparatus
• Function:
– Process and complete protein production
– Sorts and packages proteins to send to cell
membrane and out or as membrane proteins
• Structure:
– Stack of flat membrane enclosed sacs
35. Lysosomes
• Function:
– Digestion
– Enzymes to break down and recycle food, bacteria, old
organelles
• Structure:
– Made by Golgi Apparatus
– Fuse with vesicles that have things that need to be
digested
• Number of lysosomes depends on type of cell
– White blood cells, liver cells - lots
37. Vacuoles
• Function:
– Same as lysosomes
– Replace lysosomes in plant cells
– Growth
– Maintain pressure
– Holds pigments
– Contractile vacuole – protists (pump water, digest)
• Structure:
– Contains water solution of enzymes, sugars, salts,
weak acids
38. The Endomembrane System: Vacuoles
• Various Functions http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG6Dd3
COug4
Contractile vacuole
Central vacuole
39. Peroxisomes
• Function:
– Dispose of toxic substances
– Protect cells from toxic byproducts
• Structure:
– DIFFERENT from lysosomes that originate from ER
NOT Golgi body
41. Cytoskeleton
• Function:
– Transportation within the cell
– Support
– Cell division
– Connectivity
– Movement – Cilia and flagella
• Structure:
– Network of protein tubules and tracks
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules – organized by centrosomes
42. The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
Microfilaments
Functions
(1) Structure
(2) Cell motility (muscles)
43. The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
Intermediate Filaments
Functions:
(1) Cell shape
(2) Anchor organelles
Keratin intermediate filaments (red)
44. The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces
Microtubules
Functions:
(1) Support
(2) Tracks
(3) Cell division
45. The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces:
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGAm6hMysTA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kM_kRPrcrk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09kLIsNfaO8&NR=1
46. The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces:
Cilia and Flagella
Structure:
9+2
Basal body
Dynein
Spokes
50. Chloroplast
• Function:
– Site of photosynthesis
– Only 1 type of plastid – all have different pigments
• Structure
– Double membrane
– Stroma – inner fluid
– Thylakoid – stacked disks with grana
• Have photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll)
– Have OWN DNA and ribosomes
52. Mitochondria
• Function:
– Powerhouse of the cell
– Carries out cellular respiration
• Structure:
– Double membrane
– Matrix – inner “goo”
– Crtistae – folds in inner membrane w/ enzymes for
cellular respiration
– Have OWN DNA
53.
54. Cell Junctions
Type Function Example Location
plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated, symplastic intercellular
transport of substances between cells
plant cell walls
tight junctions hold cells together; help to maintain the polarity of
cells; prevent the passage of molecules and ions
through the space between plasma membranes of
adjacent cells
the kidney and liver
anchoring
(adhering) juctions
serve as a bridge connecting the actin cytoskeleton
of neighboring cells through direct interaction
epithelial and
endothelial tissues
gap junctions connects the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows
various molecules, ions, and electrical impluses to
directly pass through a regulated gate between cells
nerves
58. Organelles Summary
Organelle Structure Function
Plant
Cells?
Animal
Cells?
Nucleus contains DNA and RNA provides a segregated site for genetic
transcription, allowing levels of gene regulation
that are not available to prokaryotes
Yes Yes
Ribosome highly complex; made up of dozens of
distinct proteins
serves as the primary site of biological protein
synthesis (translation)
Yes Yes
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
membrane studded with ribosomes manufacture of secreted proteins; manufacture
of lysosomal enzymes
Yes Yes
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
membrane (smooth) synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, and steroids Yes Yes
Golgi apparatus large stacks of membrane-bound
structures
packages proteins inside the cell before they
are sent to their destination
Yes Yes
Lysosome spherical vesicles containing enzymes break down proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, lipids, and cellular debris
Rarely Yes
Central vacuole enclosed compartments filled with water isolates materials that might be harmful or a
threat to the cell; contains waste products
Yes No
Peroxisome lipid bilayer membrane; crystalloid core
(not always present)
breakdown very long chain fatty acids; detoxify
various toxic substances that enter the blood
Yes Yes
Chloroplast outer and inner membrane surrounding
thylakoid system
conduct photosynthesis Yes No
Mitochondrion Membrane surrounding cristae and
matrix (containing mitochondrial DNA)
generate most of the cell's supply of ATP, used
as a source of chemical energy
Yes Yes
Cytoskeleton network of fibers composed of proteins;
dynamic
allows cells to migrate; stabilizes tissues Yes Yes
Cell wall tough, flexible layer surrounding cells protection and filtering Yes No
Editor's Notes
Image content by Lumen Learning
Left: “Hooke Microscope” by Robert Hooke. (Public Domain). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hooke-microscope.png
Right: “Suber cells and mimosa leaves” by Robert Hooke. (Public Domain). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg
“Leeuwenhoek simple microscope copy” by Wellcome Images. Licensed under a CC-BY 4.0 International license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leeuwenhoek_simple_microscope_(copy),_Leyden,_1901-1930_Wellcome_L0057739.jpg
Left: “Theodor Schwann, Lithographie” by Rudolph Hoffmann. (Public Domain). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theodor_Schwann_Litho.jpg
Right: “Matthias Jacob Schleiden” from Popular Science Monthly. (Public Domain). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V22_D156_Matthias_Jacob_Schleiden.jpg
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Apple image from http://pixabay.com/en/apple-fruit-food-red-orange-472304/. Licensed under a CC-0 license.
“Arrenurus cuspidator Mite” by Jasper Nance. Licensed under a CC-NC-ND 2.0 Generic license. https://www.flickr.com/photos/nebarnix/908488693
“Morelasci” by Peter G. Werner. Licensed under a CC-BY 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morelasci.jpg
“Botryococcus_braunii” by NEON_ja. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Botryococcus_braunii.jpg
“Siemens electron microscope” by Edal Anton Lefterov. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Siemens-electron-microscope.jpg
“Misc Pollen Colorized” by Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Misc_pollen_colorized.jpg
“Staphylococcus aureus” by Eric Erbe and Christopher Pooley. (Public Domain). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Staphylococcus_aureus,_50,000x,_USDA,_ARS,_EMU.jpg
“Animal Cell Structure” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure_en.svg
“Plant Cell Structure” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure.png
“Cell Membrane Detailed Diagram” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg
“Plant Cell Wall Diagram” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_wall_diagram.svg
Top left: from OpenStax
Top right: “Nuclear Pores” by Magnus Manske. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear_pores.png
Bottom: “Micrograph of a Cell Nucleus” by US NIGMS/NIH. (Public Domain). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Micrograph_of_a_cell_nucleus.png
Left: “Diagram Human Cell Nucleus” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_human_cell_nucleus.svg
Right: “Nuclear Pore crop” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NuclearPore_crop.png
Images combined by Lumen Learning.
“Endomembrane System Diagram” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Endomembrane_system_diagram_en.svg
“Endomembrane System Diagram” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Endomembrane_system_diagram_en.svg
Image from Open Stax
Image from Open Stax
Image content by Lumen Learning
Left: “Epidermis Peel” by BlueRidgeKitties. Licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0 Generic license. https://www.flickr.com/photos/blueridgekitties/8259412733
Right: “enhanced phase paramecium” by Jasper Nance. Licensed under a CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0 Generic license. https://www.flickr.com/photos/nebarnix/309954509/in/photostream/
“Lipid bodies and peroxisomes” by The Journal of Cell Biology. Licensed under a CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://www.flickr.com/photos/thejcb/4077865657/in/photostream/
Model: “Adherens Junctions structural proteins” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adherens_Junctions_structural_proteins.svg
Microfilaments: “MEF microfillaments” by Y tambe. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MEF_microfilaments.jpg
Keratin intermediate filaments: “Epithelial cells” by John Schmidt. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Epithelial-cells.jpg
Filament: “IF id” by Zlir’a. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IF_id.svg
“Microtubules” by Boumphreyfr. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Microtubules.png
Cilia: “Bronchiolar Epithelium” by Charles Daghlian. Released into the public domain by copyright holder. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronchiolar_epithelium_3_-_SEM.jpg
Flagellum: “Flagellum” by Pearson Scott. Released into the public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flagellum_(PSF).png
“Eukaryotic cilium diagram en” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eukaryotic_cilium_diagram_en.svg
“4acr” by A2-33. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license.
“Serial Endosymbiosis” by Kelvinsong. Licensed under a CC-BY-SA 3.0 Unported license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Serial_endosymbiosis.svg. Adapted by Lumen Learning.
“Chloroplast” by Kelvinsong. Available under a CC-0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chloroplast_(borderless_version)-en.svg
“Mitochondrion” by Kelvinsong. Available under a CC-0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondrion_(standalone_version)-en.svg
“Cellular Tight Junction” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cellular_tight_junction-en.svg
“Desmosome cell Junction” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Desmosome_cell_junction_en.svg
“Gap Cell Junction” by LadyofHats. Released into public domain by copyright holder. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gap_cell_junction-en.svg