Building Construction Analysis Report

Building Construction (ARC 1523)
Project 1 : Integrated Construction Detailing and Drawings

LECTURER: MR. BRUCE LEE

LOO GIAP SHENG

KIEW WEE KEE

DANIEL YAP CHUNG KIAT

NG YOU SHENG

CHRISTIODY

TEO KEAN HUI

HO LEON

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page
1

1.0

Introduction

1.1

Introduction of site

2.0

Site and Safety

2-4

2.1

Plants and Machinery

5-6

3.0

External Work

7-12

3.1

Setting out and Earth work

4.0

Foundation

4.1

Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)

4.2

Foundation type and construction process (from reference)

5.0

Superstructure (from site visit and reference)

5.1

Beam and Column

20-23

5.2

Slab

24-26

5.3

Wall

27-34

5.4

Staircase

35-39

6.0

Opening

6.1

Window

40-42

6.2

Door

43-47

7.0

Roof

48-53

7.1

Roof type and construction process (from site visit)

7.2

Roof type and construction process (from reference)

8.0

Summary

54

9.0

Reference

55-56

13-19

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.1 Introduction To The Site
SITE A

SITE A
Location : Lot 37340, Bandar Mahkota Cheras, Mukim Cheras, Daerah
Hulu Langat, Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Date of Approval : 1st October 2011
Owner : Mr. Loo Kok Jiang & Ms. Low Lee Siang
Architect : Architectonic Design
Contractor : Advance Contech Sdn. Bhd.
House Type : 3 Storey Bungalow
SITE B2
Location : Bandar Mahkota Cheras, Mukim Cheras, Daerah Hulu
Langat, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

House Type : 3 Storey Terrace House

SITE B

INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE
1

2.0 Site and safety
Safety signs that commonly found in construction site.

Dress code
•

Closed toe shoes only. Work boots are preferred but thick-soled tennis shoes are allowed.

•

Due to the nature of the construction work involved, long pants are preferred. However, shorts are permitted, but
cannot be shorter than mid-thigh. No overly baggy pants should be worn.

•

Shirts are required at all times. No tank tops, tube tops, spaghetti string tops, or halter tops are allowed. All

undergarments must be covered.
•

Protective glasses are provided by Habitat, and are available for all construction site volunteers/workers. A
worker must wear protective glasses any time he or she is operating a power tool or when instructed by a Habitat
construction site crew chief or safety officer.

•

Dust mask are provided by Habitat, and are available for all construction site volunteers/workers installing
insulation, sanding, or when instructed by a Habitat construction site crew chief or safety officer.

•

Ear plugs are provided by Habitat, and are available for all construction site volunteers/workers using a power

tool or when instructed by a Habitat construction site crew chief or safety officer

SITE AND SAFETY
Prepared By: TEO KEAN HUI

2

2.0 Site and safety
Safety nets

Worker safety series
Safety nets must be used by every construction which is more than one floor to prevent thing falling down and hit people below it.
Scaffolding must be used for every construction site for many purposes such as plastering, painting and so on. It must be equip
properly and strong enough to prevent collapse.
Personal fall arrest systems must be used on every worker that work on the high ground so that he/she can be saved from falling
to the ground.
Ladder must be checked and ensure that is save before using it to avoid anything that is unpleasant happened. Besides, ladders
are required to place at the place that needed so that workers can use it all the time when they need it.

Scaffolding

First aid kits are important for every construction site and it must be placed in spot that easily seen so that everyone can find and
use it when needed.
Fire extinguisher must be place in each corner of construction site in case any fire or burning happened can be put out.
Water storage tanks that store clean water is important as a source of drinking water for worker.
Portable toilet must be installed in construction site so that business can be done in a proper place for everyone in construction
site.

Ladder

Fire
extinguisher

Water storage tank

Personal fall arrest
system

Portable toilet

SITE AND SAFETY

3

2.0 Site and safety
Electrical equipment
An electrical equipment must be used according to propel instruction and sequences. All the workers are advice to go for training and instruction should be done by a qualified
person but not “do-it-yourself”. Workers are advice to operate any electrical with the presence of instructor until the instructor satisfies with worker’s way of operating electrical

equipment in proper way.
 Clean the electrical equipment daily and it should be checked for defective switches, cords, plugs, and proper grounding to avoid any accident happen.
 Any electrical equipment that has problem must be report to the Site Safety Officer so that it can be repair or replace.
 To avoid from electric shock,
 A proper and licenced plug must be used on all the electrical equipment.
 Extension wire that used must not have frayed insulation and should not simply wrap it with tapes but to change it or repair it by qualified person.
 All the lights used in construction site must equip with the nonconductive guard.

Attitude
 Think before you do your work or task.
 Ask a Construction Crew Chief or Safety Officer for assistance if you are uncertain about how to do a task or how to operate a power tool.
 Concentrate on your task and eliminate distractions.
 Know the location of the first-aid kit and how to get emergency help.
 Inspect all tools on a daily basis including power tools, hand tools, ladders, and scaffolding.
 Advise a Construction Crew Chief or Safety Officer immediately of any unsafe condition or hazard.
 The worker get the right to rest to rest 30 minutes for each 3 hours.

SITE AND SAFETY

4

2.1 Plants and machinery
Backhoe loader, digger, JCB
A big bucket on the front and a small bucker at the back.
Commonly used in urban engineering and small construction projects.
Light transportation of building materials.
Digging holes, landscaping, breaking asphalt, and paving roads.
The buckets attach on it can be remove and replace with another machine to perform other task such as
pneumatic.
Truck, tipper
Mainly function as vehicle that carries sand and stones for construction site.
In Malaysia, the called it “lori hantu”.
The bucket behind it can be change to become other useful vehicle in construction site such as transit mixer
and many more.
Telescoping boom truck mounted mobile crane
Cable-controlled crane mounted on crawlers or rubber-tired carriers.
There are also hydraulic-powered crane with a telescoping boom mounted on truck-type carriers or as selfpropelled models.
Mainly used as a machine to carry different types of load such as steel bars, concrete by using concrete
pouring bucket with little or no setup or assembly.
Transit Mixers
A machine that that used to combines cement, aggregate and water to form concrete in big amount.
Vehicle that carries a big revolving drum to mix the components.
Normally concrete are pour into concrete pouring bucket from transit mixer to use.
Gets cement mixing materials from cement plants.
Plate compactor
Used to compact soil or road surface.
Only for small scale project.
Compacted soil can free from shifts and settles that cause by the exposure to water, freezing and thawing
cycles thus pressure from above due to vehicles or foot traffic that can lead to unstable and uneven surface.

PLANTS AND MACHINERY

5

2.1 Plants and machinery
Concrete mixer
A machine that that used to combines cement, aggregate and water to form concrete in small
amount.
Uses a revolving drum to mix the components
Concrete pouring bucket
Work together with Telescoping boom truck mounted mobile crane to carry concrete from
transit mixer.
Operate manually by worker.
Pneumatic Pavement Breakers
A tool that used commonly to break down solid such as stones, harden concrete and bricks.
Uses the vibrating system to break down the particle of solid things.
Power generator
Function as a machine to generate power for other machine that not so big by using fuel.
Bar bending machine
This machine used to shape steel bar for reinforcement of the building’s parts such as piles
and wall.
Normally uses power generator to operate.
Light lifting machine
Used to carry limited amount of load in construction site.
Operate physically and manually.
Loader
Digging holes, landscaping, breaking asphalt, and paving roads.
Commonly used in urban engineering.
Only one bucket at the front.

PLANTS AND MACHINERY

6

3.1 Fencing
Galvanized Chain-Link Fence
(used in construction)

Introduction to Chain-Link Fence
A chain-link fence (also referred to as wire netting, wire-mesh fence, chain-wire fence, cyclone fence,
hurricane fence, or diamond-mesh fence) is a type of woven fence usually made from galvanized or
LLDPE-coated steel wire. The wires run vertically and are bent into a zig-zag pattern so that each "zig"
hooks with the wire immediately on one side and each "zag" with the wire immediately on the other.
This forms the characteristic diamond pattern seen in this type of fence.

Types of Link

Knuckle - Knuckle

Knuckle - Barbed

Barbed - Barbed

The wire is knuckled at both ends & is
abbrievated as KK

The wire is knuckled at the bottom &
twisted into a barbed selvedge at
the top & is abbrievated as KB

The wire is twisted into a
barbed selvedge at both
ends & is abbrievated as
BB

EXTERNAL WORK
Prepared By: KIEW WEE KEE

7

3.1 Fencing
Galvanized Chain-Link Fence
(used in construction)
Top Rail

Fence Tie

Tension
Band

Rail End Band

Terminal
Post Cap

Gate Fork
Latch

Chain-Link Fence & Gate
(Parts & Lists)

Terminal
Post

Line
Post

Bottom
Tension Wire

Gate Post
Hinge

Gate Frame
Hinge

Examples of Chain-Link Fence at Construction Site

EXTERNAL WORK

8

3.2 Setting Out
Setting Out Building Outline (Process)

1. Set out the building line

2. Set out the base (frontage line)

Centre of the road

Centre of the road

Kerb

Peg

Kerb

Peg
B

Building Line

A

Building Line

D

Frontage Line

4. Set out the second right
angle to the frontage line

3. Set out the first right
angle to the frontage line
B

Second peg set the distance of the
width of the building to determine
the frontage line

Distance determined
by the authority

Boundary

Frontage Line

Frontage Line

B

A

First corner peg set to the distance
"D" from the boundary

Boundary

5. Set out the final (Back) line

B

A

Frontage Line

A

90°

90°

Squared Line
Squared Line

Distance set from peg C to
ped D is to be the same as
for A - B; this will ensure
that the lines are parallel
C

G

E

Peg set well outside the
proposed building's position

C

H

F

D


C

D


EXTERNAL WORK

9

3.2 Setting Out
Setting Trenches & Profiles
Proﬁles must be positioned well away from the proposed excavations
to allow an adequate working space.

Wall
Foundation & Trench

Profile Boards

Cords between
Profiles

Profile Boards

Positioning of Profiles
Typical Trenches Layout
Trench width markd
with a line/ dots of
dry lime powder for
hand excavation

Centre line of trench
marked with dry
lime powder for
machin e
excavationusing
trench width bucket

This is particularly
important when the
excavation is to be
carried out by
means of a
mechanical digger.
150 X 38
Crossboard

Concrete Strip
Foundation

50 X 50 Posts

Painted Band

When the building has been set outand proved by checking the diagonals,
profiles can be erected to enable the corner points to be easily located after
the trenches had been excavated:

Saw Cuts

Typical Profile Boards
 The proﬁle is marked with the wall position by saw cut or nail.

EXTERNAL WORK

10

3.2 Setting Out
Setting Profiles Level

Level is transferred from
datum to corner peg

Corner profile set to the
required finished floor level

 When setting up profiles, it is essential that they are as
level as possible.
 This ensures that lines cross very closely at intersections
 Avoids inaccuracies when re-measuring walls and
diagonals before commencing the brickwork.
 The proﬁ le can be levelled using an optical or laser level,
and is most conveniently levelled to the DPC level of the
proposed building.

Temporary datum mark is
protected with concrete

Boning Rods
Boning Rod

Function:

Line of Sight
Site Datum

1

3

 A simple device used
to quickly position levelling
pegs.
 Consists of two pieces of
timber nailed together at right
angles
2

 Used to transfer levels between two
known points.
 Speed up the transference of levels.
 Eye sight is used instead of a spirit
level.

Fixed Level

Line of Excevation/ Depth Required
Fixed Level

EXTERNAL WORK

11

3.3 Earthwork
Types of Earthworks
Earthworks can be calssified based on the tyoe of excavated material:

Removal of the exposed layer
of the earth’s surface,
including vegetation. Since the
topsoil, or mantle soil,
supports growth of trees and
other vegetation, this layer
contains more moisture than
that underneath.

Removal of a formation that
cannot be excavated
without drilling and blasting.
Any boulder larger than 1⁄2
yd3 generally is classified
as rock.

Rock Excavation:

Topsoil Excavation:

Removal of material that
contains an excessive amount
of water and undesirable soil.
Its consistency is determined
by the percentage of water
contained. Because of lack of
stability under load, muck
seldom can be used in an
embankment.

Removal of the layer of soil
immediately under the topsoil
and on top of rock. Used to
construct embankments and
foundations, earth usually is
easy to move with scrapers or
other types of earthmoving
equipment.

Earth Excavation:
Muck Excavation:

EXTERNAL WORK

12

4.1 Introduction to Foundation

Foundation is the lowest part of the building. The
first function is to support the building and
anchor the superstructure above and transmit its
loads safely into the earth.
Foundation system must anchor the
superstructure to prevent the wind- induced
sliding, uplift and overturning withstands the
sudden ground movements of an earthquake
then resist the pressure imposed by the
surrounding soil mass and ground water.

Proper designed construct foundation

As the building is constructed, some settlement
is to be expected as the load on the foundation
increases and causes a reduction in the volume
of soil voids containing air or water

Anchorage to
resist sliding,
uplift and
overturning

Foundation

Differential settlement

Substructure

FOUNDATION
Prepared By: CHRISTIODY

13

4.1 Types of Foundation systems
Foundation have a lot of combination
of bearing walls, columns and piers to
transmit building loads directly to the
earth.
There are some structural elements
can form various types of
substructures, such as, basement
wholly , crawl spaces, concrete slabs
on grade and a grid of independent.
Two types of foundation systems are
Shallow foundation and deep
foundation.
Basement
wholly

Crawl
spaces

Shallow Foundation
Concrete slabs
on grade

A grid of
independent

Shallow Foundation

Deep Foundation

FOUNDATION

14

4.2 Foundation Site Process

1

2

4

3

1.

Back holder excavating the soil to create the
mold for foundation.

2.

The foundation mold has been applied and
ready for pouring cement.

3.

Add the steel bar inside the mold that going to
pour by cement to stronger the foundation.

4.

Cement Mixer car start pouring cement and the
worker help to spruce up the cement so that the
cement is poured by cement mixer car does not
spill out of the mold.

5.

5

Concrete Foundation wall.

FOUNDATION

15

4.3 Foundation General Process (Underpinning and Footings)

Temporary support while
an existing foundation is
repaired

Raft
Foundation

Underpinning means the process of rebuilding the
foundation of an existing building .

Grid of Ribs
Support/alternative to
extend new foundation

Alternative to extend a new foundation wall and placing
new footing

FOUNDATION

16

4.3 Foundation General Process (Footings)

Verticcal reinforcement

Lateral
reinforcement

Steel dowels

Isolated Footings

Continuous Footing

Column Footings

Reinforced Concrete Column
A variety of proprietary
bases are available
Steel base plate

A cantilever Footings

Combined Footings

Steel Column

Wood Post

FOUNDATION

17

4.3 Foundation General Process ( Foundation walls )

Foundation wall

Foundation wall

Concrete Foundation Wall

Concrete Masonry Foundation

FOUNDATION

18

4.3 Foundation General process ( Foundation on sloping Ground and Pole foundation)

Poles

Spaced wood beams
(solid)

Foundation on sloping Ground can cause overlapping
soil stress and ground surface should not encroach on
bearing prism of soil rock

Pole Foundation means an elevate timber structures
above the ground plane, require minimal excavation
and preserve the natural features and existing drainage
patterns of site.

FOUNDATION

19

5.1 Column & Beam
Types of Column
• In ancient, there are three types of columns
been used to construct the support of the
building in Greek and Roman. They are Doric,
Ionic, Corinthian.
• Nowadays, to construct columns, there are
few materials been used such as reinforced
concrete, steel bar and etc.

Materials Used to Construct Column and Beam
on Site
• Reinforced concrete- cement and steel bar

Column
• A supporting pillar consisting of a base, a
shaft and a capital.
• A structural element that transmits,
through compression , the weight of the
structure above to other structure below.

Beam
• A structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending.

• Columns are frequently used to support
beams or arches on which the upper
parts of walls or ceilings.

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Prepared By: DANIEL YAP CHUNG KIAT

20

5.1 Column & Beam
Step to Construct Column
Diagram 1.1 : Diagram shows that
the steel bar was tied
to the foundation’s
rebar to construct
columns.

Wooden
panel

Diagram 1.2 : Wooden panels were
set up around the steel
bars.
Diagram 1.3 : 1. Wooden panels
were set up to form
the shape of the
columns.
2. Cement is poured
into the set –up
wooden panels to
form columns.
3. Remove the wooden
panels after the
cement form
concrete shape and
it takes time around
two weeks.
4. Concrete columns
were completely dry
up in 28 days in
normal weather
without raining.

Rebar

Diagram 1.2

Diagram 1.1

Cement

000

1

2

3

4

Diagram 1.3

SUPERSTRUCTURE

21

5.1 Column & Beam
Diagram 1.4 : 1. Wooden panels are
set-up as the
formwork to construct
the reinforced
concrete beam.
2. Cement is poured
into the formwork to
form concrete beam.
3. Wooden formwork are
removed after 28 days
when it dry.

Cement

1

2

3

Diagram 1.4

Pictures shown on the left are the
beams of the site we visited.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

22

5.1 Column & Beam

Advantage of Reinforced Concrete Column:
• It has a relatively high compressive strength;

Advantage and Disadvantage of Reinforced Concrete Column

• It has better resistance to fire than steel;
• It has a long service life with low maintenance cost; In some types
of structures, such as dams, piers, and footings, it is the most
economical structural material;
• It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in
precast structural components. It yields rigid members with
minimum apparent deflection.

Disadvantage of Reinforced Concrete Column:
• It has a low tensile strength of about one-tenth of its compressive
strength;

• It needs mixing, casting, and curing, all of which affect the final
strength of concrete;

Pictures shot during site visit

• The cost of the forms used to cast of concrete placed in the forms;
• It has a low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio
is about 1:10, depending on materials), which leads to large
sections in columns of multistory buildings;
• Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application
of live loads.

Other Basic Structural of Column and Beam
1. I Beam
2. Steel C Channel
3. Hollow section

1.

2

3.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

23

5.2 Slab
Concrete
Ground Slab
Slab

Concrete Slab
• A common structural element of modern buildings.
Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, are most
often used to construct floors and ceilings , while
thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.

Gravel

Materials Used to Construct Slab on Site
• Reinforced concrete- cement and steel bar

Two way
Concrete Ceiling
Slab

SUPERSTRUCTURE

24

5.2 Slab
Diagram 1.5 : 1. Wooden panels were set
Cement

up to form the shape of
the slab. Besides that,
the rebar is placed on the

Rebar

gravel to withstand more
force.
2. Cement is poured into the
wooden formwork to form
reinforced concrete slab.

Wooden
panel

3. Remove the wooden
2

1

panels after the cement
form slab shape and it
takes time around two
weeks.

4. Reinforced concrete slab
Wooden
panel

3

is totally dried up around
28 days.

4

SUPERSTRUCTURE

25

5.2 Slab
Advantage of Reinforced Concrete :
• Reduced project time & Improved Cash Flow
• Shorter start to finish time

Reason of concrete crack: Shrinkage, Rapid Drying of the
concrete, Improper strength concrete
poured on the job.

Prevent slab from crack : Know the allowable water for the mix the
contractor is pouring- or be very sure you
have chosen a reputable contractor who will
make sure the proper mix is poured. It is
more expensive to do it right- it simply takes

more manpower to pour stiffer mixes.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

26

5.3 Wall

Constructing a concrete brick wall:Brickwork bond used on site:
Stretcher bond (Running bond)
Types of bricks used on site:Clay brick and Cement sand brick
Features: Most common bond
 Easy to build
 Produces very little waste
 Use for interior setting because of its thin wall
Step 1: Foundation
Pour a concrete foundation if you do not have an existing slab, brick
ledge, or footing to work on.

Concrete footing
A wall is a vertical structure, usually solid, that defines and sometimes
protects an area. Most commonly, a wall delineates a building and
supports its superstructure, separates space in buildings into sections,
or protects or delineates a space in the open air.

Soil
Wood board
(formwork)
Aggregate
s

Perspective
view

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Prepared By: LOO GIAP SHENG

27

5.3 Wall
Step 2: Measure the brick

get the length of your wall

Start by putting a brick down at each end of where you want the wall to
go. Measure the size of your brick because bricks come in variety of
sizes; long, short, wide, skinny, etc.
9 5/8”

Step 4: Consistency

Spirit level

3/8”

Keep the height of all bricks the same by using a spirit level or
carpenter’s level. Check them once in a while to be safe.

10”

For example if your brick is 9 5/8 inches long, then you may want to
mark 10 inches intervals for each brick. The remaining 3/8 inch gap
you can fill them with mortar.

Step 5: Next level brick
Always start at each end then fill in the middle till you get to your destined
height. Remember to adjust your hook line every level you goes.

Step 3: Set up the line
Hook a line at both ends so it lines up with the very top of the two bricks.
Then fill up the middle.

Half size brick

Full size brick

Set up the line

Fill the middle

SUPERSTRUCTURE

28

5.3 Wall
Step 6: Wiring and piping

Constructing a drywall partition wall

After constructing the brick till the top, you have to get all kinds of piping ready
depending on what you need: wire, air conditioner, water and etc. Then, you
need to craft a cylindrical-like space on the wall vertically or horizontally
depending on your piping system. Then, you can start setting up your pipes.

Advantages: Easy and fast installation
 Fire resistant (contains gypsum)
 Superior in terms of insulation
 Environmental-friendly

Cylindrical-like space
for pipes

Step 1: Mark and record
Determine where you want to place your partition wall and on the
spot, put a mark on the ceiling. From the mark, drop a plumb bob
and mark the floor. Repeat it on the other side where the partition
wall going to end.
Step 7: Laying the mortar
Before you start to lay the mortar, construct a small flat-topped pyramid with mortar
at every corner and side end (make sure they are all same height). This method is
use to make sure the mortar is laid perpendicularly.
After the flat-topped pyramid mortar has dried, you can now finish off by laying the
rest mortar on the wall.

Flat-topped pyramid
mortar

Plumb bob

SUPERSTRUCTURE

29

5.3 Wall
Step 2: Measure and cut

Step 3: Assembling the pieces

Prepare studwork timber to make the frame of the partition wall. Using
measuring tape, measure and dimension the size of the wall you want it to
be. Note that the distance between every stud has to be in 16 inches
because:-

Lay the cut studwork timber on the floor first then proceed by joining
them together. Drive two 16d nails into each edge at 45 degree angle.
This method is to make sure the studworks are firmly attached.

 The standard dimension of heat and sound insulations are 16 inches as it
could fit exactly into it.
 By the time it comes to time, you might want to put things outside the
plasterboards such as baseboard, crown mold, cabinets and etc. It is
good to know where the studs are for nailing and screwing purposes.

Nail at 45 degree

Cut the studwork timbers using a saw into the dimension (according to the
size of your wall) shown below:Top plate
Step 4: Screw the plasterboards

Studs

Cut the plasterboard of that size of the outer frame. Screw the
plasterboard in, at only one side of the frame.

Noggings

Maximum
1350 mm

16
”

Base plate

SUPERSTRUCTURE

30

5.3 Wall

Pre-cast wall

Step 5: Install insulations
Leave the other side of the wall empty so that you can place the
insulation in. Make sure you install the right type of insulation
depending on what you need: heat, sound, or both. Measure and
cut the insulation into the right size so that it fits exactly.

Heat/sound
insulation

Advantages: Rapid construction
 Good quality control
 Minimal wastage
Disadvantages: Limited building design flexibility
 Skilled workmanship is required on the site
 Connections are difficult
Step 1: Plotting the wall element
Mark the outline of the wall with the dimensions you want.

Step 6: Finish the plasterboards
After inserting all the insulations you want, cover them with plasterboards.
Again, cut the plasterboard of that size of the outer frame and screw the
plasterboard in.

Step 2: Moulding and placing electric/water installations
Place the electric and water pipes on the mark (depending on what you
need).

SUPERSTRUCTURE

31

5.3 Wall
Step 3: Inserting reinforcement (ironing)

Step 5: Vibration and rotation (double wall formation)

Insert iron bars within the outline of the wall.

After the mortar has dried, rotate the dried mortar and stack it with
another prepared wall.

Step 4: Concrete filling
Step 6: Storing the walls
Pour mortar onto the iron bar.
Hook the wall off to a side as it is available to be cast to
construction

SUPERSTRUCTURE

32

5.3 Wall
Reinforced concrete wall

Step 3: Removing forms

Features: Higher relative strength
 Used in skyscrapers and bridges
 Have expansion joints to prevent cracking in response to
changes of temperature
Step 1: Setting steel and inspection

After the mortar has completely dried, remove the formwork.

Set up the skeletal structure with steel bars.

Step 2: Formwork and mortar

Glass block wall
Advantages:-






Transmit light in both direction
Distorting image to create privacy
Resistance in heat, sound and impact
Cost effectiveness (minimal maintenance)

Set up the formwork and pour mortar into the formwork.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

33

5.3 Wall
Step 1: Determine the number of blocks
Measure and plan your project as glass
block cannot be cut. Do not forget the
thickness of mortar joints.

Step 3: First row

Step 5: Complete wall

Lay a bed of mortar and start placing the
glass blocks. The spaces between the
end of the block will be filled with
expansion strip instead of mortar due to
climate changes.

Continue laying the glass blocks until the
top. Remember to add panel anchors in
every two rows to increase its endurance.

Expansion strip

Step 2: Prepare mortar
Mix an amount of glass mortar depending
on your usage.

Step 4: Second row
Repeat step 3. After filling the second
row, place panel anchors on the glass
blocks and screw them into the side wall
of both ends.
Panel anchors

SUPERSTRUCTURE

34

5.4 Staircase

Stairs is a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by
dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be
straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at
angles.
Staircase terminology

SUPERSTRUCTURE

35

5.4 Staircase
Constructing a stairs

Step 2: Determine the foundation’s dimension

Step 1: Calculate the stairs’ dimension

The dimensions of the staircase’s foundation are the total length of run
and total width of staircase as you have measured in step 1.

Standard measurement of:
 Rise (7 inches)
 Tread (11 inches)

Measure the height of one floor to the other. (to get the total number of rise)
Divide the height with 7.25 inches to see how many steps you will need.
Measure the horizontal distance the staircase will span (total run) and measure the
width of staircase from left to right (total staircase width).

Total rise

Vertical face

Total run

Step 3: Build the form
Rise

Use either plywood or framing lumber to build the form. Cut the
side forms according to the tread and riser calculations.

Run

SUPERSTRUCTURE

36

5.4 Staircase
Step 4: Prepare the concrete

Step 6: Add finishing touches

Wood float

You might need a portable cement mixer to produce sufficient
and well-mixed mortar.

Step 5: Pour the mortar

Use a simple wood float to clean and smooth the surface of
the mortars.
Step 7: Leave and wait

Filled with mortar

Start at the bottom; pour one step at a time. Make sure the mortars are
spread evenly. Use a spade to remove the trapped air bubbles.

Spray the stairs with curing compound and cover it with
burlap. After a week, you can remove the form lumber.

SUPERSTRUCTURE

37

5.4 Staircase
Constructing timber staircase
Step 1: Calculate rise and run
Find the total length of your rise and run. Also, measure the
width of your staircase. Divide your total rise by 7 inches then
you will get your number of steps.
Step 3: Install treads and risers

The volume of the stairs

Cut the risers to the length and fasten
them to the stringers. Cut the risers and
treads to overhang the outer stringer by
1 ¼”. Leaving 1 ¼” space is for nailing
purposes.

Step 2: Cutting stringers

Mark the tread notches using a framing square
fitted with stair gauges. Cut the notches using a
circular saw. Screw each stringer to the deck-frame
blocking, which was spaced 16 in. on centre. With
the stringers in place, check that each step is level,
and use a block plane to shave down high spots

Stringers

SUPERSTRUCTURE

38

5.4 Staircase
Types of staircase

Straight staircase

Circular staircase

Dog-legged or half landing staircase

Spiral staircase

Quarter landing staircase

Winder staircase

SUPERSTRUCTURE

39

6.1 Window
Window Introduction
There are varies types and sizes of windows, the choices of windows not only affect the physical look of a building, but also the natural lighting, ventilation,
potential view and interior spaces’ spatial quality of a building. Throughout the site visits, I found out there are several types of windows used in the
construction project which provide a good spatial quality.

Basic Window Elements
Window frame
In our visited site, the window
frame used is all metal window
frames .

Window Operation in our visited site
Casing trim/ Architrave

Head
Rough opening
Sash and Glazing

Jamb
Exterior casing
Not necessary
used, normally is
drip cap or head
casing.

Fixed window
0% ventilation

Sliding window
50% ventilation

Sill

OPENING
Prepared By: HO LEON

40

Sub frame system

6.1 Window

Ride up block

Installation methods of aluminium window frame

Aluminium plate
Aluminium plate

1.
2.
3.

Cast-in window System
Sub frame System
Lug System

1. Position the sub frame using
aluminium plate and ride up
blocks.

Cast-in window System

Sub frame

Ride up block

Wood
stiffener

2. Check the alignment of the plumb and the
sub frame

Window frame setting on the precast wall panel
casting mould.
Throughout the fabrication and construction
process, the window frame must be protected.

Joint
with wall

Anchor
head

3. Anchor the sub frame to the rough
opening.

Millet
Protection
tape

4. Seal the anchor heads and the joints with the
wall with protection tape on the frame.

5. Placing main frame on to the sub
frame. Millet is use to knock the
finishing trim.

OPENING

41

6.1 Window
Lug system
This is the window frame installation method used
in the site we visited. This installation method
straight away use main frame but no sub frame.
Metal straps

Aluminium
frame

Metal
straps

Aluminium
frame

Some use
broken ceramic
tiles to position

Mortar plastering
after setting the
frame.

1. Clean and wet the
rough opening.

3. Lastly, check the
alignment of the frame with
the wall and prepare to
anchor the straps and start
plastering.
2. Use straps and V-shaped
timber wedge to position the
frame.
Level peg
V-shaped timber
wedge

Plaster finished
level

OPENING

42

6.2 Door
Door Introduction
Doors and doorways always provide access from the outside into the interior of a building as well as passage between interior
space. Exterior doors provide weathertight seal and maintain the thermal insulation value. Whereas interior doors should offer
visual and acoustical privacy to the owner.

Basic Doorframe Elements
Head
Stop
Act a stop when the door
closes.

Door types
In the construction we visited, the client had
demanded to use both wood doors and
metal doors.

Rough opening
A wall opening to fit a
doorframe.

Jamb

Casing/ Architrave
A trim which provide finishing to
the joint between door frame and
rough opening
Door hardware
Threshold
Sill of doorway. Providing weather
protection and covers joints of two
flooring materials. It can be replaced
by door mat

OPENING

43

6.2 Door
Basic Panel Door Design
In terms of door operation, the
construction we visited had planned to
Head

use three types of it. Which are the
swinging, surface sliding and
bypass sliding and the folding

Swinging

Surface sliding

doors.

Top rail
Frame

Bypass sliding

Folding

The client of this construction project demanded wood panel door with sash
to be the entrance door. Wood panel door with sash is one of the design of
wood rail and stile doors.

Frieze rail

Panel

Lock rail

Style
Possible design of the wood panel door with sash
to be used.
Bottom rail

OPENING

44

6.2 Door

Rebated and lift-up door system

Installation methods of Wooden Door frame

It provide a gap between door and frame. It cause a better acoustic effect. Make
user easier to uplift door panel with the use of lift up hinges.

There are three methods I had researched on the wooden doorframe
installation. Which are:
Lift up hinge
1.
2.
3.

Traditional System
Rebated and lift-up door system
Sub frame System

Door panel

Traditional System

Main frame

The installation of doorframe was done before the
plastering the wall or installing the wall tiles.

Sub frame

Door frame may shrink, damaged or stained due to
movement, tension, moisture condition and temperature
during plastering.

Architrave
Rebated and lift-up door
System

Sub frame system
This is the method they used during the installation of wooden door frame during
our site visit.
Door panel
Door panel
Wall
Main frame

Main frame

Wall

Sub frame

Architrave

Traditional System

Sub frame System

Architrave

OPENING

45

6.2 Door
Sub frame system process

Plumb bob
To ensure the
doorframe is
straight

Measuring
tape

2. Measure the sub frame too make sure the
dimension to be more accurate.

3. Ensure proper alignment between sub frame
and the setting out line.

1. Verify and confirm the door location and the
dimension of the rough opening.

Metal
Straps

4. After aligned the frame, position the frame
using metal straps.

5. Grout the gap between the sub
frame and the rough opening

6. Measure the dimension of sub
frame in order to install the main
doorframe.

OPENING

46

6.2 Door
Silicon
To resist water
Mortise Lock

Lever Handles

7. Apply bonding agent on the main frame and the
sub frame. Apply silicon on the edges of the frame
too.

8. Install the main frame to the sub
frame using wave nails.

10. Clean the unwanted material around the architrave area. Mark
down the angle and the distance alignment between the architrave and
the main door frame.

Cylinder Lock

9. Install the door panel, hinges and the door
hardwares which use in our visited site.

11. Saw the marked architrave and apply
bonding agent.

12. Lastly, hit the nail slant to
achieve stable structure.

OPENING

47

7.0 Roof
Roofing Introduction

A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the
building and its contents from the effects of weather and the invasion of
animals. In most countries, the roof protects primarily against rain, heat,
sunlight, wind, cold and snow.

Introduction to Butterfly Roof
A roof shape which has two surfaces that rise from the center to the eaves with
a valley in the center; resembles the wings of a butterfly.
The butterfly roof design is not only meant for the good looks but also have
some advantages, the interiors of the house feels very airy and fresh. It also
allows more sunlight to enter the house due to increased height of walls.
Besides, it forms a v shaped valley so the roof is capable of storing rainfall.
However, leakage problem makes the butterfly design less comfortable, it
requires a little bit extra maintenance than other roofing, which is the main
reason why butterfly roof is less popular.

ROOF
Prepared By: NG YOU SHENG

48

7.1 Butterfly Roof and Shed Roof (on site)
Modern Construction Method Step by step

2

1

Roof Truss: Sloping Top Chord

Roof Framing

These metal trusses are pre-fabricated in a factory and
delivered to site ready for fixing, much simpler than
traditional roofing carried out entirely on site.

The purpose of a roof frame is to provide a structure that spans the walls of
the building and supports the roof covering. The slope of pitch is to allow rain
water to run off and be drained away from the dwelling. The roof frame also
assists in bracing the structure from wind forces from various directions.

3

4

Install Acoustic Insulation Panel on top of Roof Framing
Roofing insulators that prevent heat flux through the roof,
they are set below water proof roofing materials.

Flashing: Install Corrugated Galvanised Steel Roofing on top of
Insulation Panel
pieces of sheet metal usually lead, attached around the joints and
angles of a roof to protect against leakage

ROOF

49

7.1 Butterfly Roof
Basic Rules and Gutter

LOW END OF
BUTTERFLY
ROOF

MAXIMUM 4’
ABOVE
HEIGHT LIMIT

MAXIMUM 3’
ABOVE
HEIGHT LIMIT

HEIGHT LIMIT

EXTERIOR WALL

BASIC RULES OF CONSTRUCTING BUTTERFLY ROOF
CENTRAL GALVANISED GUTTER
FALLING TO RAINWATER HEAD

BUTTERFLY ROOF GUTTER

GUTTER BOARDS ON
FRAIMING TO FALLS

ROOF

50

7.2 Steel Framing and Terms of Roof Truss

Steel Framing
Ret
The roof trusses are made of C-channel steel bars
These steel bars then form roof trusses in the factory, and
the roof trusses were brought to the site, during installation,
they were connected using steel gussets.

Leg

Web

C Channel Steel

Steel Gusset
Webs
Roofing

Top Chord

Web Tie

Roof Truss

Roof Batten
Pitch

Pitching Point

Fascia

Pitching Point

Nail Plates

A truss is a frame that supports loads by efficiently
transferring its forces to end supports.

Ceiling
Overhang

Cantilever

Ceiling Batten
Cantilever Web

Bottom Chord
Bottom Chord Tie

Overhang

Normal Span
Overall Length
Terms of Roof Truss Members

ROOF

51

7.2 Types of Roofs

The gambrel roof is the variation of a
gable roof. It has a steep slope on
two sides , a second slope begins
partway up and continues to the top.
This type of roof is commonly used
on barns.

The gable roof has two sloping sides
that meet at the top to form a gable
at each end.
It is the most common type of roof.

GABLE ROOF

GAMBREL ROOF

The gable roof has two sloping sides
that meet at the top to form a gable
at each end.
It is the most common type of roof.

The hip roof slopes at all sides,
results in an even overhang all
around the building.
It is a very strong roof and is
commonly found in regions where
have severe storms.
This roof is very popular due to its
low maintenance needed.

HIP ROOF

MANSARD ROOF

ROOF

52

7.2 Types of Roofs

A-Frame Roof is normally used in
countries which have snowfalls, the
steep slope allows the snow slides to
the ground instead of remaining on
top. A-Frame house have limited
space and are usually built as
vacation cottages.

Curved roof is known for their
aesthetic appeal. Other than that, it
may allow for greater indoor areas or
extra floors where height restrictions
are a concern. In addition, a curved
roof may also help to reduce
resistance to wind.

CURVED PANEL ROOF

A-FRAME ROOF

The flat roof is not perfectly flat, the
rafters are laid at a slight angle to
allow rain water to flow. Sheathing
and roofing are applied to the top of
the rafters.

Shed roof, also called a lean-to roof,
the shed roof is often used for an
addition to an existing building. A
shed roof is similar to a flat roof but
has more pitch.

SHED ROOF

FLAT ROOF

ROOF

53

8.0 Summary
Although both site A and site B are three-storeys building, but we found that the construction process of site B is much efficient. In
our opinion, site B uses more advanced machines and the land area is operated by developer. From our observation, the workers
in site B are more skilled and attentive compared to site A. The superstructure of site B can be pre-casted because it required less
design flexibility.

SITE A (Bungalow house)

SITE B (Shop houses)

54

9.0 References
1.

Ching, F.D.K., 2008. Building Construction Illustrated. Fourth Edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Willey & Sons, Inc.

2.

Allen, E. and Iano, J., 2009. Fundamentals of Building Construction Materials and Methods. Fifth Edition. Hobeken, New Jersey: John
Willey & Sons, Inc.

3.

Varghese, P.C., 2007. Building Construction. New Delhi: Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited.

4.

Anonymous, n.y.. Design. [online] Available at: <http://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/others/doordesign.pdf> [Accessed 16 October
2013].

5.

Anonymous, n.y.. Installation. [online] Available at:
<http://www.bca.gov.sg/professionals/iquas/..%5CIquas%5Cgpgs%5CAWindow%5CAWInstallation.pdf> [Accessed 16 October 2013].

6.

Anonymous, n.y.. Installation. [online] Available at: <http://www.bca.gov.sg/Professionals/IQUAS/others/doorinstallation.pdf> [Accessed 16
October 2013].

7.

Civil Engineering: Advantages and Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://bahkalimantap.blogspot.com/2011/10/advantages-and-disadvantages-of.html

8.

Ching, F. K. (2010). Building Construction Illustrated. John Wiley & Sons.

9.

Retrieved from http://bernardcustom.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/construction-phase-cantilevered-foundation-wall-awaiting-soil-toprotect-wall.jpg

10. Construction stages of precast wall [Video file]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jenYP9Acivg
11. How to build concrete stairs the easy way [Video file]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpdMrbRHBLU
12. How to Create and Install a Glass Block Wall : How-To : DIY Network. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.diynetwork.com/how-to/how-tocreate-and-install-a-glass-block-wall/index.html
13. How to Build Stairs - Easy Steps Building Stairs - Popular Mechanics. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/home/how-

to-plans/woodworking/4224738

55

9.0 References
14. How To Build A Brick Wall - Channel4 - 4Homes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.channel4.com/4homes/how-to/diy/how-to-build-a-brickwall
15. How to Quickly Build Small Partition Dry Wall ( Wood Framing ) Inside for Your House. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.wikihow.com/Quickly-Build-Small-Partition-Dry-Wall-%28-Wood-Framing-%29--Inside-for-Your-House
16. Homemag, NY Mag, designingyourperfecthouse.com, Sheetmoss (2010, July). staircase terminology. Retrieved from
http://www.atticmag.com/2011/06/staircase-sensibilities/
17. Types of Excavation ~ Engineers Daily. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/04/types-of-excavation.html
18. Chain Link Fence Index - Chain link fence materials and supplies, free fenceinstallation manuals, calculators, and tips. Our chain link fence
index features links tofence fittings, fabric and mesh, free fence installation manuals and material calculator. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.hooverfence.com/chain.htm
19. Excavation in Construction from Construction Knowledge.net. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.constructionknowledge.net/sitework/sitework_excavation.php

56

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