BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I
BLD 60303
EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION
EXPERIENCING, DOCUMENTING AND ANALYSING CONSTRUCITON PROCESS
Brian Koh Jun Yan 0322002
Cha Yun Xian 0322048
Cham Zheng Chee 0322317
Chia Keh Chian 0322062
Chin Shee Wei 0322499
Lim Win Kee 0322790
Muhammad Aa'meer 0322891
Pau Jin Wei 0323840
Rachel Yeo Zhi Xuan 0323005

Content
1
.0 Introduction and Group members detail
.1 Introduction to site
2
.0 Site and Safety
.1 Plants and Machineries
3
Prepared by: Chia Keh Chian
Prepared by: Chia Keh Chian
.0 Preliminaries Work
.1 Site layout, Setting out and Earth work etc.
Prepared by: Cha Yun Xian
4
.0 Foundation
.1 Foundation type and Construction process
.2 Foundation type and Construction process
Prepared by: Chin Shee Wei Prepared by: ALL
5
6
7
.1 Beam and Column
.0 Superstructure
(from site visit)
(from references)
(from references)
(from site visit and reference)
.2 Slab
.3 Wall
.4 Staircase
Prepared by: Brian Koh, Pau Jin Wei, Muhammad Aa'meer,
Cham Zheng Chee
* BK
* PJW
* MA
* CZC
.0 Doors and Windows
Prepared by: Rachel Yeo Zhi Xuan
8
.1 Roof type and Construction process
(from site visit)
.0 Roof
.2 Roof type and Construction process
Prepared by: Lim Win Kee
.1 References
.0 Summary

Introduction and
Group members detail 1Introduction to site
by Chia Keh Chian 0322062

1.0 Introduction and group members’ details
Group members:
1. Cham Zheng Chee 0322317
2. Brian Koh 0322002
3. Cha Yun Xian 0322048
4. Chia Keh Chian 0322062
5. Chin Shee Wei 0322499
6. Lim Win Kee 0322790
7. Muhammad A’meer 0322891
8. Pau Jin Wei 0323840
9. Rachel Yeo 0323005
1

1.1 Introduction to site
Name of development: Twin Palms
Property developer:
Property type: Semi-d, bungalow
Sprawled over 126 acres of undulating countryside, Twin Palms flanks the SILK Highway and is
within mere minutes of the Mines and just 20 minutes to KLCC. With much of the natural topography
preserved, the landscape is a canvas of rolling hills, lush greenery and charming streams and parks
that play host to the stylish semi-detached villas and elegant bungalows.
Master Layout Plan
Location Plan
Location:
Twin Palms, Bandar Sungai Long, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.
SITE A
2

SITE B
Name of development: Galena Villa Property developer: Multi-Realty Development Sdn. Bhd.
Property type: Semi-d and terrace house
Galena Villa pledges to ascend residents’ lifestyle to a different level. The exclusive private
signature entrance statement and iconic guard house with 50’ wide access road. Connectivity
is assured via an intricate network of major expressways, while also in the easy vicinity of
mature amenities and facilities such as schools, medical centres and shopping malls.
Location: Jalan Bukit Galena 1, 70200 Seremban, N.S.D.K
3

Site Safety 2
by Chia Keh Chian 0322062
Plants
and Machineries

2.0 Site safety
Construction site has been classified as a high risk industry due to the high possibilities of accidents, injuries and deaths happening during construction process.
Construction workers are exposed to danger of falling from heights, movement of the plants and machinery, electrical shocks, drowning, excessive noise and
dusk etc. The department of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) and other government agencies have regulations that lay down the legal requirements to
ensure the safety and health of not only the workers at the place of work but also the public. It is applied to all place of work in building operation and work of
engineering construction activity in Malaysia covered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (ACT 514), The Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (ACT
139) and all the regulations made there under.
Personal protective equipment (PPE)
To minimize exposure to hazards that can cause serious injuries and illnesses, all staffs and workers on site must wear and use personal protective equipment,
which commonly referred to as "PPE". These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other
workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or
coveralls, vests and full body suits.
HEAD PROTECTION
Safety helmet must be worn all time during construction process as there is risk for objects falling from above, bumps to the
head from fixed objects, or of accidental head contact with electrical hazards. These helmets must be inspected from
time to time to ensure they are in good condition- free from cracks and deterioration and able to perform their function
well.
4

FOOT PROTECTION
It is a must for staffs, workers and visitors to wear safety boots to prevent crushed toes when working and walking around
falling object and heavy machineries. These boots must be routinely inspected to ensure they are still slip-resistant and
puncture-resistant.
High visible vest are wore by workers to prevent injuries happen due to low light and poor visibility, especially when there are
moving machineries. High-visibility items allow workers to be seen by the one controlling the equipment sooner and more
readily as human eyes’ visibility is enhanced by high colour contrast.
HAND PROTECTION
Workers should wear the right gloves for the job (examples: heavy-duty rubber gloves for concrete work; welding gloves for
welding; insulated gloves and sleeves when exposed to electrical hazards) and also the right size that fit perfectly. If the
gloves are too large, they could create an obstacle and prevent work from getting done safely; if they are too small, this
could restrict a worker’s range of motion, again hindering work from getting done. Poorly fitting gloves can cause the hand
to cramp or blister, ultimately impairing a worker from doing their job safely. It is important to measure hands in order to find
properly sized gloves.
EYE AND FACE PROTECTION
Safety glasses or face shields are essential to prevent foreign objects to get in the eyes especially during welding, cutting,
grinding and nailing process because workers are exposed to harmful chemicals or when exposed to flying particles).
HEARING PROTECTION
Earplugs or earmuffs are used to protect ears and hearing. It is essential in high noise work areas where chainsaw or heavy
equipments are used.
5

Signboard
Under the Factories and Machinery (Building Operations and Works of Engineering Construction) Regulations 1986 covered by the Department of Occupational
Safety and Health, a simple but effective warning notice shall be placed in conspicuous position to warn the employee and public.
Red- Prohibition Blue- Mandatory Yellow- Warning Green- Information
On site:
Safety signboard is placed at the entrance of the site to warn the workers and visitors about the considerations before entering the site.
Information:
Warning:
Prohibition:
Mandatory:
6

Hoarding
Hoarding can include barriers, gates, viewing windows, areas of fencing and so on and may be used to display warning and information signs.
Temporary fencing erected around the perimeter of construction site to:
1. Protect public from danger
2. Prevent theft or vandalism for site security
3. Prevent unauthorised access
4. Minimise disturbances
5. Improve privacy
Other than safety reasons, hoarding can also be
branded, used for marketing and promotion to
advertise the contractor or developer, or can be
used to show people what the completed
project will look like and how it will impact the
local area.
7

Scaffolding
Temporary platform constructed from steel and timber coupled together to provide access to reach heights above arms' reach for the purpose of building
construction, maintenance, or repair. They are required when the working height is 1.5m or more above ground level.
Ladder
Ladle is a tool used in construction site to reach height. Wooden ladles are commonly
used as wood does not conduct electricity and heat. Its original colour and texture
are preserved as paint can hide cracks and flaws on it that may possibly cause
accidents to happen.
8

Fogging (Insect control)
Fogging is carried out within the workers’ living area to prevent mosquitoes breeding, flies and cockroaches that could lead to serious illness such as dengue,
malaria and diarrheal.
9

2.1 Plants and Machinery
(a) Backhoe loader (b) Crawler excavator
Also called a rear actor or
back actor.
Consists of a tractor, fitted with
a shovel or bucket on the front
and a small backhoe on
the back.
Uses:
- Loading and carrying
materials
- Digging shallow excavations
- Digging trenches
- Lifting loads
- General grading
Heavy construction equipment
consisting of a boom, stick,
bucket and cab on a rotating
platform.
Also called diggers.
Uses:
- Digging bigger trenches,
holes, foundations
- Material handling
- Brush cutting with hydraulic
attachments
- Forestry work
- Demolition
- Digging pits for basements
- General grading/
landscaping
- Mining
- River dredging
- Heavy lift
- Driving piles
10

(c) Truck
Hauling units used to
transport excavated
materials over a distance.
(d) Transit mixer
Used to mix cement,
aggregate and water to form
concrete in big amount. It
carries a big revolving drum to
mix the components,
maintaining the material’s
liquid state until delivery.
Discharge can be direct into
placing position via a chute or
into some form of site transport
such as a dumper. This
method of concrete supply
can eliminate the need of site
space to accommodate
storage of materials, mixing
plant and the need to employ
workers who can constantly
produce consistent concrete
mixes.
11

(e) Telescopic Boom Cranes
A full revolving superstructure
consists of a telescopic boom
mounted on a specially
adopted truck.
Also called mobile crane.
Used in lifting and
transporting materials around
the site by hanging it on the
hook. Can travel on public
roads between projects
uunder own power with
minimum or no dismantling
and reassembling. Therefore
suitable if a job requires
crane utilization for a few
hours to a couple of days.
Can lift loads up to 5 storey
height. Raised materials by
means of rope operation.
(f) Concrete mixer
A device that
homogeneously combines
cement, aggregate and
water to form concrete.
Use a single-compartment
revolving drum to mix the
components. The drum has
an inclinable axis with
loading and discharge
through the front opening.
These tilting mixers have
fixed blades inside the
revolving drum that lift the
mixture and at a certain
point in each revolution
allow the mixture to drop
towards the bottom of the
drum to recommence the
mixing cycle.
12

(g) Concrete vibrator
(h)Air compressor
(h) Single drum roller
(j) Jack-in Pile
A mechanical
device which
provide to-and-fro
motion in any
direction, used to
consolidate freshly
poured concrete so
that trapped air and
excess water are
released and the
concrete settles
firmly in place in the
formwork
A device that
converts power into
potential energy
stored in pressurized
air.
Consists of one front and two rear
wheels.
A compactor type engineering vehicle
used to compact soil,
gravel, concrete or asphalt in the
construction of roads and
foundations after grading. Compaction
reduces the volumn
of air space in the soil, increases dry unit
weight and stregth
of soil to provide better support.
A piling machine used to drive piles into
soil to provide foundation support for
building structures.
13

Preliminaries Work 3
by Cha Yun Xian 0322048
Site layout
Setting out
Earth work

3.0 Preliminaries Work
Preliminaries work refers to a series of preparation work that are carried out before construction, including earthwork, setting out, and facilities setup. These
works are very important as it helps to smoothly run the future stages of construction.
A. Earthwork
Earthwork refers to the process of excavating and piling parts of the earth surface to form a desire landform for construction purpose. The construction site was
prepared in two stages of excavation, first the existing vegetation was cleared and the surface soil layer was removed through topsoil excavation, and then
through earth excavation, the ground soil was moved to a desire level for the next construction stage.
1. Topsoil excavation
Topsoil excavation is the removal of the exposed layer of the earth’s surface, including trees and roots using bulldozer. Since the topsoil supports growth of
trees and other vegetation, this layer contains more moisture than the layer underneath. Whereas, the layer underneath is easier to handle as it drinks up
less moisture than topsoil and becomes dry and hard. Hence, it is advantageous to remove the topsoil and remain the soil layer underneath for building
construction. In order to save the expenses of hauling the removed topsoil away, the removed topsoil will be stockpiled on an empty land and later
restored back on the site for landscaping or to support growth of vegetation to control erosion.
Topsoil
Topsoil Topsoil
Removed
topsoil
2nd layer soil 2nd layer soil 2nd layer soil 2nd layer soil
Topsoil
→
Bulldozer
Figure 3.1.1 Topsoil excavation process
→
Existing vegetation
114

2. Earth Excavation
Figure 3.1.2 Figure 3.1.3
Earth excavation at construction sites was carried out using excavators. First, the bucket in front
acts downwards to dig up soils and rocks. Then, it drag towards the machine and
tilted upwards to hold the loads.
Figure 3.1.4
Desired ground level after excavation
Earth excavation is the removal of the layer of
soil immediately under the topsoil and on top of
hard rock. During the excavation process, a
method called “cut and fill” is used to construct
embankments and foundations at both construction
sites. Cut and fill is a common technique used to
create an even ground surface. It is the process of
moving earth from one place to another to transform
the ground into desire topography and at the same
time, minimizing the expenses of hauling dirt.
① ②
①
③ ④
①
⑤
Existing ground level
Cut line
Cut
Cut
Fill Fill
Desired ground level
Figure 3.1.2 Earth excavation process
A ‘cut’ is made when earth is cut from above the desired
ground height and a ‘fill’ is when earth is used to fill a hole
to desired ground level.
15

B. Setting Out
Setting out is the process by which information is taken from construction design drawings and then pegs, profiles or other marks are set to control the
construction work to ensure each element is constructed in the right position and correct level. In order to begin digging the trenches required for building's
foundation, lines and measurements that are indicated on foundation plan must be transferred to the building site first by marking the exact length, width,
depth, and position of the foundation trenches on the ground.
Process:
1. Set out the building line 2. Set out the base line
3. Set out the first right angles to the base line 4. Set out second right angle to the base line 5. Set out the final back line
Centre of the road Centre of the road
Kerb Kerb
Building line Building line
Peg
Boundary Distance determined
by the authority
Base line
B A
D
Second peg set the
distance of width of the
building to determine
the base line
First corner peg set to
the corner “D” from
the boundary
B B BA A ABase lineBase lineBase line
90º 90º
90º
C
Squared line
Peg set well outside the
proposed building’s
position
C D C D
E F
E
G
E
H
E
Distance set from peg C
to peg D is to be the
same as A-B; this will
ensure the lines are
parellel
Pegs set well outside the
position
Pegs set well outside the
position 16

After the base line has been set out, it must be checked again on the right angle and correct lengths using different methods to avoid errors.
When the setting out of the main buildings lines are checked and confirm, profile boards are then set up to locate the position of trenches, foundations and
walls.
Telescope at right angle
- swivel up and down
- range 3~10m
50º
Tripod Sight lines
to corner
post
Plumb rod
Corner
post
4units
3 units
90º
Corner postStake
Stake
Figure 3.2.1
Setting out checking methods (a): Site square (b): Builder’s square
Setting out line Setting out line
Softwoords
50 x 50
corner post
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2.2
Profile board
Trench width
Wall width
Position of trench
plumbed down
Setting out lines
Nails positioning
trench and walls
50 x 50 pointed
post driven to
ground
17

C. Storage
1. Open store
Bulky materials such as water pipes, roof tiles, and water tanks are stored on open spaces at site so that the materials are easily accessible to the workers
and less effort are required to transport materials to site of work. Roof tiles and red bricks are stacked no more than 150cm tall to prevent collapsing,
causing injuries or financial loss.
Large water pipes are stored on open spaces at site
Figure 3.3.3
Stacks of roof tiles are stored on an
open space at site tidily without
obstructing access routes
250 gallon water tank is stored on an Piles of red bricks are kept in place with plastic
open space at site covers wrapping around it and stacked on
palette to avoid friction with ground 18

D. Labour Shed
Majority of the construction labour are migrant workers from countries in Asia such as Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Pakistan. These construction workers
work up to 10 hours a day, hence, temporary wood plank sheds are built at the site as their accommodation to provide essential needs like water, power supply,
sanitation, and food during the construction period.
Figure 3.4.1
Mini stalls are setup at the corner of labour shed to sell
groceries
Figure 3.4.2
Wood plank sheds with corrugated aluminium roof
Figure 3.4.3
Figure 3.4.4
19

E. Utility Connection
1. Power supply
Construction work requires electrical power for
many purposes. The supply of electricity on site
is connected to city’s power supply line to provide
electrical power for portable power tools, lighting
systems, and other job site electrical requirements.
2. Water supply
Temporary water supplies are needed where there are no sufficient mains water supplies
during the outset of construction site. Therefore, temporary, above ground water storage
tanks are used to store rainwater for construction purposes, such as concrete mixing and site
welfare.
Figure 3.5.1
Wiring panel at construction site
Figure 3.5.2
Outlet pipe is joined to the water tank
outlet fitting with a flexible coupling
Figure 3.5.3
Water tank is placed above hardwood
decking that is supported by metal
scaffolding
20

F. Hoardings / Signboards
1. Hoardings
Temporary steel hoardings are setup around the perimeter of
construction sites to define site boundaries and also serve as
security fences. It is an important component that boosts the
level of safety of site workers, visitors and public as it helps to
prevent dust and noise nuisance to adjoining properties.
Hoardings also keep intruders away from dangerous sites to
reduce the risk of accident.
2. Signboards that can be seen at both construction sites
include safety signboards that increase hazard awareness on
site and advertisement signboards that call the public
attention to the buildings development and housing
developer.
Figure 3.6.1
Steel hoardings supported by plywood
frames
Figure 3.6.2
Hoardings provide privacy for both public
and workers on site
Figure 3.6.3
Advertisement signboards on site
Figure 3.6.4
Safety signboard on site
21

cG. Site Office
A temporary portable cabin is placed at the centre of the construction site to serve as the site office for the professionals involves. It is a light duty container
that is able to resist corrosion and critical temperature conditions due to its materiality. This single storey site office includes facilities such as windows and shutters,
lighting and electricity, air conditioning, office furniture, and washroom.
Construction site office
22

Foundation 4
by Chin Shee Wei 0322499
Foundation type and
Construction process
(site / references)

Superstructure 5
by Brian Koh 0322002 Muhammad Aa'meer 0322891
Pau Jin Wei 0323005 Cham Zheng Chee 0322317
Beam and Column
Slab
Wall
Staircase

5.1 Beam and column
Beam and column are the main supporting system of a building during the early stage. They serve as the same purpose of supporting the building
structure however they carry out different characteristics.
A. Beam
The beam is the horizontal member of the structure, carrying transverse load from the upper structures including its own weight towards the columns or the
walls.
Beams on site
(a) Ground Beam
A reinforced concrete beam for supporting walls, columns, joists or near ground level. It is construct directly upon the ground or supported at both ends by
piers.
(b) Simply Supported Beam
A beam that rest on the wall or column in order to transfer the upper load to the ground. The installation is easy and economical.
Construction Process (Ground Beam)
1. Installation of metal rod 2. Installation of formwork
3.Finishing
- Marked accordingly based on the
construction drawing
- Bears the load from the wall
- Metal rods will be constructed to increase
the stability
-Formwork is created by plywood board
- Plywood board was cut in the shapes of horizontal cuboid plan surrounding the formwork
- To ensure the formwork will not expand out of alignment when pouring the concrete.
29

Construction Process (Simply Supported Beam) * Scaffolding *Cube Test
- The slab and beam are cast in site at the same time
- Columns must be complete to support the beam
- Formwork will be constructed upon the column and
then concrete is poured into the formwork
- Mild steel scaffolding to support the beam during
construction.
- Maintain the size and shape of the concrete when
vibrating
- Compressive strength carried out for
7,14,21,28 days
- Cube is filled with 3 layers of concrete
- Each layer are compacted for 25 times
- Concrete cube was left harden for 24
days
- Concrete is ready to be poured into the fixed formwork and let it dry and set.
- Formwork can be removed when its dry and the beam is ready for the columns to be constructed upon it.
30

B. Column
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above
to other structural elements below.
Column on site
(a) Slender square concrete column
They are subject by buckling rather than by crushing. Buckling is the sudden lateral instability of a slender structural member induced by the loads that act
upon the column from the upper structure.
Construction Process (Concrete Column)
1. Installation of Metal Rod 2. Installation of formwork 3. Finishing
- Thick metal rod are arrange vertically and
equally
- Thinner steel bars are covered around the
vertical steel bars to hold them firmly.
- Positioning hardwood board formwork for the
column
- Form a basic cuboid formwork
- Formwork is held firmly by yokes and bolts to prevent
the concrete mix from leaking out
- Grade 30 concrete mixture ratio of 1:3:6 of
cement, sand and aggregate are poured into the
formwork until it reaches the brim
31

4. Scaffolding * Slump Test * Honeycomb
- Hardwood Timber support the column scaffolding
- Maintain the size of column while vibrating the
concrete
- Temporarily support the weight and keep the
formwork firmly in place while the concrete cures
- Assessing the consistency of fresh
concrete
- 7-14-21 days to achieve strength
- Compressive strength is carry out
Hollow spaces left on surface or inside the concrete mass
Due to:
- Less amount of sand and cement
- Improper vibration on the concrete
Affect:
-Reinforcement bar will corrode due to air present
Solution:
-Skim coat or plastering
32

5.2 Slabs
Concrete slabs are similar to beams in the way they span horizontally between supports and may be simply supported, continuously
supported or cantilevered. Unlike beams, slabs are relatively thin structural members which are normally used as floors. Slabs are constructed
of reinforced concrete poured into formwork on-site or into trenches excavated into the ground. Concrete slabs are usually 150 to 300mm
deep. The concrete slabs in our site are classified into supported on the ground in the house as the slab sits directly on the ground and it is
suspended.
Timber formwork for slabs
Pouring of concrete
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to Maintain: Keeping a concrete floor looking its
best will only require a minimum amount of
maintenance. It will need to be sealed or waxed
every 3-9 months depending on the level of traffic in
order to maintain the protective layer over its
surface.
Moisture: If not properly sealed on both top and
bottom surfaces, concrete will be very susceptible to
penetration by moisture. If liquid does manage to
make its way into the pores of a concrete floor, it can
sit there and lead to the growth of mold or mildew in
your home. In some environments you will also have to
worry about the moisture freezing, which will cause it
to expand and crack the floor slab through its center.
Environmentally Friendly: In most cases a
concrete subfloor already exists beneath another
flooring material in grade and below grade
locations. That means that installing a concrete floor
is actually just uninstalling anything that has been
placed over it. Because no new material is
produced, there is no carbon footprint or depletion
of resources
Hardness: The strength and durability of this material
can also be a liability. The surface of a concrete floor
is very hard. If you trip and fall on one then you are
probably going to hurt yourself. Items dropped on
these surfaces are also more likely to shatter or crack.
That is why these floors are not recommended for
areas which will be frequented by children or elderly
people.
Long Lasting: A sealed and properly maintained
concrete floor can last indefinitely. Even in
commercial applications it can survive under high
traffic conditions for years to come. This saves you
money, while also preventing the hassle of having to
get new flooring installed periodically.
Uncomfortable: The hardness of concrete also makes
it uncomfortable to stand on for long periods of time.
Concrete doesn't yield, and if you are forced to stand
on it for an extended period your feet will feel the fury
of its stoic stony demeanor.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE SLABS
33

Types of slab on site: Two-way slab and beam
 Ratio of longer side to
shorter side is less
than 2 or maybe
close to 1.
 Main tension
reinforcement bars
span in both
directions, parallel to
the length and the
width of the panel
 It is very effective for medium
spans and it will support the
load of the space which are
the bedroom and toilet
above it.
 Load also be able to transfer
four support beams at all
four sides of nearly square
bays.
Image of the interior
part of two-way slab
Image of the exterior
part of the house
34

PROCESS OF FORMWORK (TIMBER)
Surveying and land surveying is the
measurement and mapping of our
surrounding environment using
mathematics, specialized technology
and equipment. Surveyors measure just
about anything on the land, in the sky
or on the ocean bed.
The first step of site preparation work is to remove all
the scrubs or jungle if there exists any on the site for
building construction. As a part of site preparation, the
trees will be cut off and their roots are totally uprooted
as directed by the authority. Site preparation also
includes fixing position of the site office, go downs, the
guard and the labor shed, the access and existing
roads for trucks and carts etc.

Rebar known as reinforcing steel and
reinforcement steel, is a steel bar or BRC mesh
of steel wires used as a tension device in
reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry
structures to strengthen and hold the concrete
in compression. Rebar's surface is often
patterned to form a better bond with the
concrete.
Prepare dry mix by mixing the cement
mix and sand. Incorporate the gravel
or crushed stone in the dry mixture.
Begin by adding water to the mixture
slowly, mixing continuously until the
concrete becomes plastic enough to
place in your form. Continue mixing
until the concrete has a uniform
consistency.
Formwork in concrete construction is used
as a mold for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden
subsequently. Types of formwork for
concrete construction depends on
formwork material and type of structural
element. Timber used for shuttering for
exposed concrete work should have
smooth and even surface on all faces
which come in contact with concrete. It
suits all requirements which is well
seasoned, light in weight, easily workable
with nails without splitting, free from loose
knots.
35

Lift the polisher above the surface and turn
it on. Lower the polisher onto the concrete
and let the weight of the tool do the work.
Keep the pad as flat as possible. Move
around the piece evenly, in circular
motions. Don’t start or stop in one place for
too long or else it won’t be balanced.
Warm weather and light loading conditions
allow early removal of formwork. The
formwork should under no circumstances be
allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of at least twice
the stresses to which the concrete may be
subjected at the time of removal of
formwork. All formworks should be eased
gradually and carefully in order to prevent
the load being suddenly transferred to
concrete.
Add the concrete to the form, tapping all the
edges to remove air pockets, and let it settle
in evenly and firmly. Using a magnesium float
or a smooth flat board, level the concrete
across the top. Do this by dragging the tool,
tilted slightly upward on the leading edge,
across the surface of the concrete. This
process is known as "floating" and will float
the fine cement paste to the surface. After
floating, leave the concrete dry until it
becomes firm enough to finish without
leaving tool marks.
36

5.3 Walls
Definition
A wall is a structural element used to divide or enclose,
and, in building construction, to form the periphery (outer
limits/edge) of a room or building. Traditionally, walls
were used to support the weight of the building’s floors
and roofs, but due to technological advancements in
construction, such as reinforced concrete frames and
other skeletal structures, exterior walls are only required to
provide shelter.
Types of walls
Reinforced concrete
Reinforced concrete are
concrete slabs in which
wire mesh/steel bars are
imbedded within,
increasing its tensile
strength.
Reinforced
concrete
Masonry (brickwork)
Construction method:
Semi-Gravity retaining walls (mixture of cantilever and gravity-retaining)
Cantilever retaining
walls
Cantilever walls consist
of a thin stem and a
base slab. The base is
divided into the heel
and toe, where the heel
is under the backfill and
toe is the latter.
Gravity-poured retaining
walls
Gravity-poured walls are
dependent on its weight
and the soil it rests upon.
Usually large enough to
have no reinforcement.
Semi-gravity retaining
walls
Semi gravity walls are a
mixture of both
cantilever and gravity-
poured walls. These
walls have steel
reinforcements
imbedded to reduce
the thickness of the wall
without additional
reinforcement.
37

The soil is excavated to
make way for the wall
construction.
Formwork is created using
timber. This would
determine the form of the
retaining walls.
Concrete is then poured
into the formwork
Concrete is then vibrated in order to liquefy the
concrete to remove air bubbles and avoid blemishes.
Not only that, the vibration of concrete would also allow
the mix to move around the formwork more freely.
Insufficient vibration may result in an abundance of air
bubbles that would not only make the concrete
weaker, but also visually unappealing. Over vibration,
however, would cause a segregation of the mix, where
the denser aggregates would sink to the bottom,
leaving the less dense aggregates floating above.
The formwork is then
removed after the
concrete has dried.
Damp proofing is then applied to the reinforced walls.
This is done by applying a layer of an asphalt-based
mixture on the surface of the retaining walls. These are
usually black in appearance. Then, a polystyrene sheet
is placed over after the asphalt-based mixture is dried.
This process is done in order to prevent moisture from
seeping through the concrete walls.
Polystyrene board
Asphalt layer
Soil is then added back.
38

Masonry
Walls made of brick. Bonds are the patterns in
which the brick is laid.
Tools for bricklaying:
4) Steel square
- Used to ensure corners are at a 90-degree
angle
1) Spirit level
- Used to check
flatness
- Consists of bubbles
that must line up
within two lines
3) Trowel
- Used for spreading mortar.
- 9-12 inches long
- 4-7 inches wide
- Larger trowels are used to
spread mortar, smaller ones
are used to remove excess
mortar and fixing old joints.
2) Mason’s line
- Used to lay a straight wall
- Dacron or nylon is usually used as the
wire
- Stretched and anchored between
two corners
- Prevents hollows and bulges during
construction
- Placed closely to the blocks in
construction but with enough
distance for mortar correction without
the disturbance of the line.
Construction method:
Stretcher bond
- Stretcher (Brick laid flat with the longest dimension placed
parallel to the face of the wall)
- Header (Brick laid flat with the longest dimension placed
perpendicular to the face of the wall. Used to pair wythes of
masonry.)
- Wythe (Bricks laid continuously with a thickness of 4” or
greater)
Elevation
Plan view
Plan view
Stretcher bond characteristics:
- not suitable for standalone structural walls
- require the least amount of cutting (economical)
- Faces of the bricks exposed are the two longer faces
and the two header faces.
- Brick is laid on the bed
39

Construction process:
Brickwork
Brick is laid using the
stretcher bond method.
Header bonds are used
for the connecting walls
of two houses.
Alignment of the brick walls
are achieved through the use
of a Mason’s line. The line is
stretched between two
corners close to the brickwork
but with enough distance for
excess mortar extraction.
Damp proofing (DPC) is
added into the mortar
between two bricks over
two or three courses (layers)
An exmet (expanded metal), a type of brickwork
reinforcement, is added for every fourth course
(level/joint) of the brick. The exmet functions by
absorbing the vibrations and stresses in the
building. This, in turn, provides additional tensile
strength as well as minimizing the chances of
cracks. Excess exmet is later cut off.
40

Lintels
Bricks laid in mortar give
poor support to the wall
above is no support is given
below.
Concrete slabs represent
the lintels and are used at
the top of door frames and
windows.
Lintels are used to provide
the support needed during
these cases
Door & window
1)
Door and window frames
are installed after brickwork
is done.
Brickwork would
accommodate space for
the installation of the door
and window frames
41

Plaster nix:
- 3 buckets of sand
- ½ a bucket of cement
- ½ a bucket of lime
Application:
Dust and debris are
removed from the wall via
brush, etc.
Prepare plaster. Mix the
ingredients with a mixer.
A hawk is used to take the
plaster.
The plaster is then moved
onto the trowel.
Application must be
worked from one direction.
Eg. From top to bottom
and from left to right.
After the plaster is dried, screening is
to be done via dragging a straight
edge alongside the wall. This is done
to give the desired finish.
Spirit
levelWall
Dust and debris are removed from the wall via
brush, etc. Screening is done once again for
any adjustments needed. Trowel and hawk
would be used to even out any patches. Final
screening would be done.
Use the trowel to cut the
edges of the wall by sliding
it alongside the corners of
the wall.
The wall is now ready to be
painted.
43

5.4 Staircase
SITE A: Half-Turn Staircase.
-It turns at 180 degree or through two right angles at an intervening landing. It is more compact than the single
straight-run stairs. The two flights are connected by the same landing may be equal or unequal, depending on
the desired proportion of the stairway openings.
A structure that provides a stairway to facilitate access when ascending or descending from one
space or level to another.
Staircase Terminology
44

Site B: Winding Stairs
Dimensions:
Riser- 175mm
Tread- 225mm
Total Number of Steps- 18
Stairs Width- 900mm
Staircase Material: Concrete Staircase [Cast In-situ]
A concrete stair is designed as an inclined, one-way reinforced slab with steps formed on its upper surface. If the stair is constructed after the floor beam or
wall supports, it acts as a simple beam. If it is cast with the beam or slab supports, it is designed as a continuous beam. Concrete stairs require careful
analysis of load, span, and support conditions.
45

Construction Process of the Concrete Staircase
2. Reinforcement
- The addition of rebar acts as a strengthening factor for the concrete staircase after completing its formwork.
46
1. Formwork.
- The concrete of the staircase is given a form
by casting it into a mound. These molds that
are built act as the formwork of the staircase.
The formwork will be supporting the staircase
until it is dry, stable and gain optimum amount
of strength to support on its own. The formwork
that was constructed must be easily removed
without damaging the formwork itself, and
also the hardened concrete.

5. Handrails.
-After the staircase are done, installation of handrails can be proceeded. Cement is used to fill the holes when installing the handrails. A smooth finishing is
done when the cement dries.
3. Casting
- The cement mixer is used to produce sufficient and well-mixed mortar. The concrete pouring
started with the top and slowly flows to the bottom of it. Protection must be made at this stage
for the cast-in-site concrete stairs not be affected by the fresh concrete that will fall or stuck to
the stairs .
-It takes 14 days to dry off. After 21 days, the formwork of the staircase can only be removed.
4. Final Touch
-The skim coats are applied onto the staircase. The position of handrail, balustrade are marked.
47

Doors and Windows 6
by Rachel Yeo 0323005
Doors
Windows

6.0 Doors and windows
Doors Doors at Site
Doors serve the purpose to give access
to enter and exit from one space to another.
Doors are made of wood, steel and aluminium.
Types of doors
Flush Vision Narrow Half
Light Light Glass
Full 2 Panel 4 Panel 6 Panel
Glass
8 Panel Louver Half Glass Dutch
Louver
Hinged door
In the site, hinged doors are
used as the main doors,
bedroom doors and
bathroom doors. Hinged
doors are allowed to pivot
away from the door way in
only one direction with a
vertical axis of rotation.
Hinged doors are compact
Fully-glazed door
In the site, these doors can
be seen at the entrance of
the kitchen. A fully-glazed
door is visibly possible which
is often used in the kitchen
where visibility is needed
instead of privacy. This door
serves the purpose of
allowing the entrance of
light into the
Glass shower door
The glass door is used in the
shower area in the
bathroom as a separator
between the shower and
the toilet. The function of
the door is to decrease the
area from getting wet. At
the same time, it is also of
safety consideration to
prevent the floor from
wetting and people from
falling down.
Sliding door
In the site, sliding
doors are used as
access from the
rooms to the
balconies. The
sliding doors are
fitted into the
frames at the top
and
doors that with no visibility at all. These doors are
used to separate one space from another where
privacy is very much needed. Hinged doors have
excellent insulation ability.
space. In addition, it benefits as safety reasons as
the visibility to the room is clear from the outside.
the bottom so that the doors move horizontally
only. In order for the doors to move, there are
plastic rollers attached to the top and bottom of
the doors. Plastic rollers are fixed at both the top
and the bottom of the doors to prevent either one
end of the doors to be stuck which affects the
movement of the doors.
48

Windows
Types of windows
A window is defined as ‘an opening in the wall or roof of a
building or vehicle that is fitted with glass or other
transparent material in a frame to admit light or air and
allow people to see out’.
etert
Picture Single Hung Double Hung Awning Double
Transom Casement
Glider Hopper Pass Through Single Single
Transom Casement Hopper
Single Awning Vertical Pivot Horizontal Uneven Uneven
Pivot Single Double
Hung Hung
Windows at Site
Casement window
Casement windows are hinged at the sides. When the
window is fully opened, it provides maximum ventilation.
The shutter consists of styles, top rails, bottom rail and
intermediate rail. The panels are glazed and are fixed
to in the grooves made in rails and styles.
Bay window
Bay windows are windows projecting outward from
the external walls. This type of window is wide and
allows light entering from different angles. It creates
an extension from the walls. This kind of window was
started in snow fall country to have a better view
outside.
Awning window
Awning windows are hinged at the top and open
outwards. They are designed to provide ventilation in a
way where rain is not allowed to enter the house. Awning
windows can be used alone or in vertical or horizontal
groups in combination with additional awning windows
and other types of windows.
50

Roof 7
by Lim Win Kee 0322790
Roof type and
(site / references)

7.0 Roof
Introduction:
- Supported by outside walls, ceiling joists, and interior bearing walls.
- Sheathed in layers of plywood, waterproofing, and shingles.
- To shed water away from the structure. (waterproof)
Structure
Material
1. Roof Truss - Framework of beams to support the roof
2. Rafters - Part of the roof truss
3. Sheeting - Panels that covers the rafters, which roofing materials attached
4. Underlayment - Placed on top of sheeting to add on moisture protection
5. Starter Strip - Filling spaces under cut-outs and joints of shingles to provide
protection
6. Drip Edge - Allow water to run-off
7. Fascia - To cover rafters at the end of eaves
8. Soffit - Finished underside of eaves
9. Valley - Internal angle formed by two intersections of two sloping roof planes
10. Ridge - Highest point of the roof
11. Flashing - Prevent the seepage of water around an intersection in a roof
Site A:
Pro Con
- Non-combustible - Expensive
- Great insulator - Heavy
Site B:
Pro Con
- Long lasting - Heavy weight
- Low maintenance - Colour may faded away
- Non-combustible - Expensive
- Cannot withstand pressure
Truss structure
52

Construction Technique 1Roof Type on site (Site B)
(a) Gable roof
Pro
- Weather resistance
- Affordable
Con
- Ventilation
---> Strong wind
(b) Mono pitch roof
Pro
- Cheap
- Basic roofing material
- Construct easily
- Protect interior from excess sunlight
Con
- Drainage problem
---> Damage underlying construction
Truss Type on site B
Mono-truss
The trusses should be specially designed
and fabricated for such locations and not
be adapted from an ordinary truss by site
cutting, to infill timber around an opening.
Gable ladder
Gable ladder should be tightly
nailed with the last truss and it is
designed for the purpose of wind
uplift forces
Construction Technique 2
Pro Con
- Cheap - Drainage Problem
- Basic roofing material ---> Damage underlying
construction
- Construct easily
- Protect interior from excess sunlight
54

(a) Queen Truss
Pro Con
- Cheap - Drainage Problem
- Basic roofing material ---> Damage
underlying construction
Roof Type on site (Site A)
(b) Pitch roof
Pro
- Weather resistance
- Affordable
Con
- Ventilation
---> Strong wind
(a) Flat roof
Pro
- Low maintenance
- Affordable
Con
- Drainage problem
---> Ssusceptible to water leakage
Truss Type on site
Concrete Flat Roof
Component of Concrete Flat Roof
1. Mortar
2. Reinforced concrete slab
3. Light-weight concrete for slope
4. Water proofing
5. Thermal insulation
6. Asphalt membrane
7. Cement mortar
8. Cement slab
Form Work Support
Spacing
The formwork consists of a
sheet of plywood deck onto
the concrete poured timber
bearer to provide the
necessary support to the
concrete between the
supporting walls.
The spaced of the joist or
rafters are spaced differently
according to the roof load
(b) Flat truss
Flat roofs are easier to install because they lack
pitch, and it is harder to fall off of.
53

Construction Process
Stage 2 - Handling
Stage 4 - Truss
Stage 3 - Wall plates
Stage 5 - Water CisternStage 1 - Storage
Final Stage - Shingles
Truss must be
store clear of the
ground, and put
some additional
support with
suitable props at
where required to
maintain stable.
Cover the truss
and make sure
adequate
ventilation and
water can drain
away.
Stage 6 - Sheeting & Underlayment
Handling truss
should be
planned as
the truss
needed to be
lifted at node
points with the
apex upright.
Wall plates should
be fixed to the
supporting
structure usually by
metal straps,
which needed to
be nailed onto the
masonry. At least
three fixings should
be made to the
masonry.
Truss is installed
onto the wall and
supported by the
wall plates.
Truss is needed to
be nailed by
using proprietary
truss clips to
support the
structure.
Each wall plate is
calculated for
placement of
truss on each wall
plates to support
the roof load.
The water tank
should be placed
centrally within the
bay, as close to the
node points as
possiblee, and screw
the primary,
secondary bearer
and spreader beam
together to reduce
local deflection and
ceiling cracking.
Sheeting and
underlayment are
installed onto the
arranged trusses to
add on protection
for the truss.
Suitable material
of shingles is laid
onto the
underlayment.
55

Summary
2.0 Site safety (CHIA KEH CHIAN)
Safety and health is not a matter to be taken lightly in construction field, in fact it needs to be front of mind in every aspect at all times. The construction industry is prone to many hazards due to the number of people
running around to do their work and the amount of heavy-duty equipments being operated at any given time. However, accidents can be avoided most of the time. Hence, it is very important to implement stringent
health and safety precautions to protect workers and visitors. There is simply no excuse for slacking or cutting corners when it comes to health and safety in construction. From our site visit, both sites have fairly good
safety precautions, except for some workers who did not follow and use the PPE. Strict rules should be implemented to prevent any tragedies from happening.
3.0 Preliminaries work (CHA YUN XIAN)
Preliminaries works are very important as it prepares the outset for building construction. From earthwork to setting out to facilities setup, each stage has to be done carefully and correctly according to plan to ensure
a well operated construction project. Contractor should always be considerate in order to convey the general public an impression of good efficiency and remain good reputation. Furthermore, site workers must
have great awareness of environmental issues by reducing site waste and eliminating unnecessary movement of plants and materials. Most importantly, health and safety regulations on site must be complied strictly
to prevent casualties.
4.0 Foundation (CHIN SHEE WEI)
After the meaningful construction site visit done by us, there are countless of valuable information of knowledge gained by me after the visit. Besides, I had the opportunity to learn something that I couldn’t learn from
the lectures and textbook. I have better understanding about how a construction site works now. Through this site visit, I was able to know further more about the method of construction of foundation. This site visit
really helps us to visual better in method of construction of foundation. Foundation is very important in construction, as it is a massive structure which has to support the weight of the building. Foundation construction is
extremely important for the safety of your whole building. The foundation is what your house is built upon. There are many of important components which will make your foundation as strong and as durable as
possible. Learning about these foundation construction components in advance will help you build a sturdy home. In conclusion, this visit has greatly enhanced my knowledge about construction site. I am very
grateful to have a chance to visit there as I have gained a lot of knowledge.
5.0 Superstructure
5.1 Beam and column (BRIAN KOH)
In conclusion, beam and column are designed to handle bending moments, in addition tension forces, compression forces, and shear forces caused by all of the forces that act on the building but is different in the
method or the way of handling the load by each member. They own have each of their unique characteristic. Similar materials are used in the construction of beams and columns which are steel, timber and
concrete. Beams run horizontally between the columns right underneath the floor. Their main purpose is to hold up the floor, but beams are also important for holding the building together. Therefore, beam and
column are equally important for the fundamental of the building.
5.2 Slab (PAU JIN WEI)
In the case of two-way slab it has been found in practice that a huge moment develops at the support, for example, at the support negative moment is huge. In this case steel must be provided to withstand this
moment. In most of the cases extra top bars are provided. The slabs are each platform or base for each level of the houses.
5.3 Wall (MUHAMMAAD A’MEER)
There are only two types of walls on the site, which are the concrete retaining walls and the masonry wall (brick wall). Of the two walls, the retaining wall is the only one that supports its own structure. The brick wall, on
the other hand, would not have sufficient strength to support the weight of the building. instead, its sole purpose is to provide shelter from the environment as well as act as a boundary between the interior and
exterior spaces. Other than that, bull stretcher bonding is only used during the transition point of one house to another.
5.4 Staircase (CHAM ZHENG CHEE)
The type of staircase that can be identified in the Twin Palm’s site are Half-Turn Staircase. As for the Seremban site, the use Winding Staircase is applied in their residential. Both staircases from both sites use the
Concrete Staircase and also the traditional kind of formwork, which is using the material timber. The process of building the staircase goes by the start of build in its form work, followed by the reinforcements and the
mortar filling. The site visit we managed to see the stage where the formwork and reinforcements are installed. The site visit was a good exposure for us to understand and experience the activities, the equipment, and
the whole construction process. It really widens your perspective and brings awareness to the details and process of building a house. These are the little details that we usually do not take note of, but after the site visit,
it gave me a more in depth understanding of how each components comes together, each details, measurements, materials and so much more that are take into consideration, before coming out with the end
product. It was an eye opening and a great learning experience.
56

6.0 Doors and windows (RACHEL YEO)
A door serve the purpose to give access to enter and exit the interior of a space or a building. They function as the connector between the partitions of a building. Besides, doors are barricade of noise which provides
privacy to each closed space. At the same time, doors are made for sublime purposes. A basic door consists of a stationary door frame and shutter. Doors comes with a frame but as time passes, the advance in
designing due to beautification and function purposes lead the industry to various resorts of doors. All the doors are named after the purposes they serve. The most commonly use doors in our site are the standard
single-leaf door that has a rigid panel. The house doors installation process are different compared to a garage door installation process as it is a much more simpler and direct way of installing it. There are various
types of windows like casement windows, awning windows and bay window that are used on site. All windows have different positioning of the hinges and openings too. Every type of window that is used in the site
serves different purposes in every space. All windows are mainly designed for ventilation purposes and also bringing in natural light from the outside in order to brighten up space.
7.0 Roof (LIM WIN KEE)
To construct a roof structure on a building need to gone through many process. It might look simple, but the difficulties can be found in every detail of works, such as storage, handling, nailing and also measuring.
Especially storage and handling, these two are the starting part of roof construction, and it need to be carried out very carefully as it might affect the whole construction plan. As for the ending part of roof
construction, choosing the right material of shingles is also one of the important details as it will affect the durability and sustainability of the roof structure.
57

References
2.0 Site safety:
- Construction Site Safety Signs | Construction Signage Specialists. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.css-signs.ie/health-safety-signs/construction-road-signs/construction-safety-signs/
- Construction Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/construction_ppe.html
- Construction Safety Tips: A Comprehensive Resource by Atlantic Training. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.atlantictraining.com/safety-tips/construction-safety-tips.php
- Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Construction_plant
- CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES. Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://theconstructor.org/construction/equipment/construction-equipments-for-different-purposes/901/
3.0 Preliminaries work:
- Mereia Kali, Grad. Bridge and Structural Engineer Follow. (2012). Stages in Construction. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/mereiakali/stages-in-construction
- Types of Excavation. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.engineersdaily.com/2011/04/types-of-excavation.html
- Setting Out Simple Buildings. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.qs4freshers.com/setting-out-simple-buildings.html
- Project preliminaries - the costs. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.self-build.co.uk/project-preliminaries-costs
- Designing Buildings Wiki The construction industry knowledge base. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Hoarding_for_construction_sites
- Site Preparation. (n.d.). Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.home-building-answers.com/site-preparation.html
4.0 Foundation:
- Pile Foundations. (2016). Retrieved October 19, 2016 from Understand Construction website: http://www.understandconstruction.com/pile-foundations.html
- Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Construction Process. (2015). Retrieved October 19,2016 from The Constructor - Civil Engineering Home website:http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/driven-cast-in-situ-concrete-
piles-construction-process/7088/
- Jalal Afsar (May 3, 2015). Accounting: Steps In Construction of Residential Building.Retrieved October 19, 2016 from Engineering Intro website: http://www.engineeringintro.com/construction-works/steps-in-
construction-of-residential-building/
- Kol Peterson (November 9, 2011). Accounting: Building design and construction process – step by step.Retrieved October 19, 2016 from https://accessorydwellings.org/2011/11/09/building-design-and-construction-
process-step-by-step/
- Footings & Foundations. Retrieved October 19, 2016 from http://www.spikevm.com/footings-foundations.php
5.0 Superstructure:
5.1 Beam and column
-Slideshare(2011, June 2) Retrieved 2 October 2016 http://www.slideshare.net/mbrsalman/civil-engineering-beamscolumns
- Beamform (n.d.) Retrieved 2 October 2016 from http://www.beamform.co.uk/8_beams1.html
- Oberton (2015) Retrieved 2 October 2016 http://www.oberbeton.com.ua/en/columns
58

5.2 Slab
- Form and Pour a Concrete Slab. (2016). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://www.familyhandyman.com/masonry/pouring-concrete/form-and-pour-a-concrete-slab/step-by-step
- Two-way Slabs. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://gnindia.dronacharya.info/CivilDept/Downloads/question_papers/Vsem/DOC-I/UNIT3/4643-Two-way-Slabs1.pdf
- How to Polish Concrete Countertops | CHENG Concrete Exchange. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://www.concreteexchange.com/how-to-center/polish-and-grind-concrete/polish-concrete-
countertops/
- Concrete slab floors. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/concrete-slab-floors
- SLAB DESIGN - Memphis. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2016, from http://www.ce.memphis.edu/6136/PDF_notes/h_slabs.pdf
- Frederick S. Merritt, Jonathan T. Ricketts. (2001) Building Design and construction Handbook, Sixth edition
- Charles, M. & George M. (1919) Building construction: a text book on the principles and details of modern construction for the use of students and practical men
5.3 Wall
- The Editors of Encyclopæ dia Britannica (2016) Wall, Architecture. Retrieved from: https://global.britannica.com/technology/wall
- Technical Support, Bricklaying Techniques. (2016) Retrieved from: http://www.brick.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Brick-Bonds.pdf
- News Desk (2013, July 5) Introjected Backfil Retaining Walls: A Revolutionary Technology to Reduce the Cost of Retaining Walls. Retrieved from: http://www.masterbuilder.co.in/introjected-backfil-retaining-walls-a-
revolutionary-technology-to-reduce-the-cost-of-retaining-walls/
- The Constructor (2015) TYPES OF REINFORCED CONRETE RETAINING WALL. Retrieved from: http://theconstructor.org/structures/types-of-reinforced-concrete-retaining-wall/8393/
- Four Common Types of Rigid, Monolithic Concrete Retaining Walls (1999-2016) Retrieved from: http://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/poured_concrete_retaining_walls/four_types.htm
- Damp Proofing The Outside Foundation Walls, What Damp Proofig Is – And What It’s Not (2002-2011) Retrieved from: http://www.basementsystems.ca/basement/waterproofing/problems/wall-
leak/dampproofing.html
- Brickwork reinforcement (2008-2016) Retrieved from: http://www.rib-lath-machine.com/metal-lath/brickwork-reinforcement.htm
- How to plaster a brick wall (n/A) Retrieved from: https://www.bunnings.com.au/diy-advice/home-improvement/walls/how-to-hard-plaster-a-brick-wall
- Chasing cables and pipes into walls. (2000-2016) Retrieved from : http://www.diydata.com/general_building/chase-wall/chasing-cables-pipes.php
- Cutting and Filling Chases in Brick and Concrete Walls for Wiring and Cables and Filling for Plastering (2016) Retrieved from: http://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/chases.htm
- SUGGESTED CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE – Owner Builders (n/A) Retrieved from: https://ablis.business.gov.au/nsw/Resource/AD4654C.pdf
- Masonry “How To” Basics (2007) Retrieved from: http://www.masonryforlife.com/HowToBasics.htm
- Edd (2011, February 5) Brick lintels – walls. Retrieved from: http://civilconstructiontips.blogspot.my/2011/06/brick-lintels-walls.html
- Basic Brick Construction: Walls, Corners, Pillars & Edging (2006, August 30) Retrieved from: https://www.quikrete.com/pdfs/projects/basicbrickconstruction.pdf
5.4 Staircase
Website:
- Starter bars in staircases|www.BuildingHow.com. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://debug.pi.gr/default.aspx?ch=70
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- Sander, J. (n.d.). How to build concrete stairs. Retrieved October 10, 2016, from http://howtospecialist.com/structure/how-to-build-concrete-stairs/
Books:
- Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.
6.0 Doors and windows
- Kodriguez, J. (2016, August 13). How to install a door - opening, installation, hardware and finishing. Retrieved October 15 2016, from https://www.thebalance.com/how-to-install-a-door-844559
- Gibson, S. (2016). How to Install a Window. Retrieved October 15 2016, from https://www.thisoldhouse.com/how-to/how-to-install-window-0
- Magazines, C. (2016). Types of doors. Retrieved October 15 2016, from http://www.build.com.au/types-doors
- Weber, C. (2016). Types of Windows. Retrieved October 15 2016, from http://www.realsimple.com/home-organizing/home-improvement/renovations/types-windows
- Wise, W. (2016). Window Types and Materials . Retrieved October 15 2016, from http://www.windowwise.com/file_uploads/Window_Style_Guide.pdf
7.0 Roof
- Charlett, A. J., & Maybery-Thomas, C. (2013). Fundamental Building Technology (2). Abingdon, Oxon, US: Routledge. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com.ezproxy.taylors.edu.my
- Parts of a Roof. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://www.homeimprovementhelper.com/roof/roof_parts.htm
- Detail of Roof [Flat roof & Pitch roof]. (n.d.). Retrieved October 18, 2016, from http://image.slidesharecdn.com/tobeprintfinal-131221103118-phpapp02/95/to-be-print-final-62-638.jpg?cb=1387622019
- Section B Detailed Drawings [Abstract]. (n.d.). 137-250. Retrieved October 12, 2016, from http://www.woodspec.ie/media/woodspec/content/Woodspec Final - Section B.pdf
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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1