Rajasthan priorities outdoor air pollution, bhattacharjya

1. Assessing social and private benefits and costs for
improved brick production in Rajasthan
Souvik Bhattacharjya,
The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi
Rajasthan Priorities Eminent Panel Meeting – 9th June, 2018

2. Brick production in India (1/2)
• India is world’s second largest producer of bricks after China
• With an average annual production of 200 bn bricks, India’s share is nearly 14 % of global
brick production
• Brick production has increased 8 times in last 40 years
• More than 100000 units are present (no official estimates)
• 65 % of India’s bricks are produced from the fertile alluvial soil from the Indo-Gangetic plain
• 2nd largest consumer of coal in the industrial sector category, after iron and steel
• Consumes more than 35 million tonnes of coal and emits more than 60 million tonnes of
CO2
• Nearly 70% of infrastructure yet to come up in the next 10 - 15 years; it is estimated there
would be 3 to 4 times increase in demand for bricks

3. Brick production in India (2/2)
• The sector employs > 10 mn people, making
it one of the largest informal employment
creating sectors
• Predominant technology is Fixed Chimney
Bull’s Trench Kiln (FCBTK), accounting for 70
%
• This is followed by clamp kilns (25%),
available in central and south India
• FCBTK and clamp kilns are traditional technologies and less energy efficient
• Share of class 1 brick production low (around 40-50%)
• Inadequate combustion leads to high CO concentration in flue gas, black smoke, and un-burnt
coal deposition at the floor of the kiln.
• The measured SPM emissions from FCBTK lie in the range of 250 – 1250 mg/Nm3
Issues

4. Air pollution and health impacts in India
• Air pollution 2nd leading health risk factor
in India (ICMR 2016)
• Outdoor air pollution caused 6.4 percent
of India’s total DALYs in 2016
• Pollution led to over 2,750 cases of deaths
or severe illnesses per lakh people
• 41 deaths per lakh population was
estimated due to cardiovascular diseases
arising from air pollution
• 22 deaths due to chronic respiratory
diseases
• Lower respiratory diseases (14 deaths)
from air pollution

5. Brick manufacturing in Rajasthan
• Rajasthan, over the years, has emerged as a key brick manufacturing state.
• MNRE estimates more than 3000 bricks manufacturing units
• Most of the brick manufacturing units are situated in three districts
• Sri Ganganagar
• Hanumangarh
• Jaipur
• FCBTK is the key process technology used in manufacturing bricks in the state
• The predominant fuel is coal although biomass is used particularly post harvest seasons
• Brick production, being seasonal, takes place during winters and summers (total 8-9 months)
• The average daily production may vary from 5000 bricks to nearly 20,000 bricks

6. Impact of brick manufacturing on pollution and health
• Health impacts due to air pollution in Rajasthan is high compared to national average
• Infant mortality is 41 compared to national average of 34 (NITI Aayog)
• 15.3% of the total deaths are attributable to COPD in Rajasthan against 8.66% in India (ICMR 2018)
• 3.2% of deaths are due to asthma against national average of 1.88% (ICMR 2018)
• 7.2% of deaths are due to LRI against national average of 5% (ICMR, 2018)
• Further, an estimated around 801 deaths have been attributed due to brick kilns in the state
Name of Districts Population (2016) Mean concentration
(PM10)
Estimated deaths due to
brick kilns*
Jaipur 7301312 211 µgm/m3
(monitoring only in Alwar, Bharatpur,
Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kota and Udaipur)
525
Hanumangarh 1672673 120
Sri Ganganagar 2212321 156
* Relative risks have been estimated based on Ostro (2004)

7. 1st analyzed solution
Improved Zig-Zag Kiln Technology

8. The Zig-Zag technology
• The Zigzag kiln is an improved version of the FCBTK where the
bricks are arranged in such a way that the air is forced to follow a
zigzag path
• Lower energy consumption and savings on energy cost
• On an average, in comparison to conventional FCBTK, Zigzag kilns require
about 20% to 30% less coal
• Better environment performance
• PM emission can be reduced by 60 to 65 %;
• Higher percentage of class-I bricks
•A significant advantage of Zigzag kiln is the production of a higher
percentage (around 80%) of class-I bricks, as compared to that of FCBTK
(around 50%).
•Increase proportion of higher quality product leads to increased revenue

9. Private costs and benefits
• The cost of technology has been used based on literature review and discussion with
subject matter experts (Rs 5 mn/kiln)
• Using the estimated average production per kiln & capital cost per kiln, total capital
cost of intervention for state estimated.
• The adoption of Zig-Zag technology not only reduces variable cost of production but
also leads to increase in share of class 1 bricks.
• The total incremental financial benefits is Rs 89 bn till 2030, for 5% discount rate.
• The incremental profit per kiln for this discount rate is Rs 18.6 mn

10. Assessing Social benefits
• Social benefits of cleaner brick kilns assessed are
•Health benefits of reduced PM10/PM2.5 emissions &
• Global benefits of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction due to higher energy efficiency of Zig-Zag
technology
• Zig-Zag technology is estimated to reduce CO2 by 1.2 million tonnes.
•The present discounted value of carbon has been estimated at Rs 24 bn and Rs 7 bn respectively.
• Health benefits estimated based on risk function for lower respiratory infection among children
under 5 years, cardiopulmonary disease, lung cancer
•4346 deaths can be avoided (between 2019 and 2030), thus saving 362 deaths per annum
• Avoided deaths and associated illness valued based on VSL and DALY approach
• NPV of incremental health benefits:
• Rs 50 bn using 5% discount rates (VSL approach)
• Rs 27 bn using 5% discount rate(DALY approach)
• Benefit cost ratios for 5 discount rate are 9.4 (VSL) and 7.9 (DALY)

11. Benefit cost assessment summary
Rs million Discount rates Zig-Zag (VSLApproach) Zig-Zag (DALYApproach)
Cost 15600 15600
Financial benefits
3% 102024 102024
5% 89114 89114
8% 73665 73665
CO2 benefits 3% 24764 24764
5% 7439 7439
8%
Health benefits
3% 58091 35998
5% 49724 27237
8% 39905 18610
Total benefits 3% 184879 162786
5% 146276 123789
8% 113570 92275
BCR 3% 11.9 10.4
5% 9.4 7.9
8% 7.3 5.9

12. 2nd analyzed solution
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln Technologies

13. The Vertical Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) Technology
• The hot exhaust gases for the gradual preheating of the unfired
bricks in a continuous process, thus reducing energy consumption
and CO2 emissions
• Lower energy consumption and savings on energy cost
• On an average, in comparison to conventional FCBTK, VSBK technology
requires about 45% to 50% less energy
• Better environment performance
• PM emission can be reduced by 75%;
• Higher percentage of class-I bricks
• Higher percentage (around 90%) of class-I bricks, as compared to that of
FCBTK (around 50%).
• Increase in the proportion of higher quality product results in an increase
in the revenue for the brick-kiln owner and acts as a major incentive

14. Private costs and benefits
• The cost of VSBK has been used based on literature review and discussion with
subject matter experts (Rs 7.5 to 8 mn/kiln)
• Using the estimated average production per kiln & capital cost per kiln, total
capital cost of intervention for state estimated.
• The adoption of VSBK not only reduces cost of production but also leads to
increase in share of class 1 bricks.
• The total incremental financial benefits are Rs 117 bn bn till 2030, for 5%
discount rate.
• The incremental profit per kiln Rs. 24 mn

15. Assessing Social benefits
• Social benefits of VSBK assessed are
•Health benefits of reduced PM10/PM2.5 emissions &
• Global benefits of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction due to higher energy efficiency of Zig-Zag
technology
• VSBK technology is estimated to reduce CO2 by 2.72 million tonnes/annum.
•The present discounted value of carbon has been estimated at Rs 52 bn and Rs 15 bn respectively.
• Health benefits estimated based on risk function for lower respiratory infection among children
under 5 years, cardiopulmonary disease, lung cancer
•6611 deaths can be avoided (between 2019 and 2030), thus saving 551deaths per annum
• Avoided deaths and associated illness valued based on VSL and DALY approach
•NPV of incremental health benefits:
• Rs. 75 bn using 5% discount rate (VSL approach)
• Rs. 41 bn using 5% discount rate (DALY approach)
• Benefit cost ratio 8 (VSL) and 6 (DALY)

16. Benefit cost assessment summary
Rs million
Discount rates VSBK (VSLApproach) VSBK (DALY Approach)
Cost 24000 24000
Financial benefits
3% 134640 134640
5% 117603 117603
8% 97215 97215
CO2 benefits 3% 52905 52905
5% 15892 15892
8%
Health benefits
3% 88375 54765
5% 75645 41436
8% 60708 28311
Total benefits 3% 275920 242310
5% 209140 174931
8% 157923 125527
BCR 3% 11.5 10.1
5% 8.7 7.3
8% 6.6 5.2

17. Thank you