1. PHOTORECEPTION
• Ability to detect
a small
proportion of the
electromagnetic
spectrum from
ultraviolet to
near infrared
Figure 7.27
2. PHOTORECEPTORS
Organs range from single light-sensitive cells to
complex, image forming eyes
Two major types
Ciliary photoreceptors – have single, highly
folded cilium; folds form disks that contain
photo-pigments
Rhabdomeric photoreceptors – apical
surface is covered with multiple out foldings
called microvillar projections
Photo-pigments - molecules that absorb energy
from photons
5. PHOTOPIGMENTS
Photopigments have two covalently bonded parts
Chromophore – pigment that is a derivative of
vitamin A, e.g., retinal
Opsin – G-protein-coupled receptors
Steps in photoreception
Chromophore absorbs energy from photon
Chromophore changes shape
Photoreceptor protein changes shape
Signal transduction cascade
Change in membrane potential
Bleaching – process where activated retinal no
longer bonds to opsin, thereby activating opsin
8. THE EYE
• Eyespots are single cells or regions of a cell that contain
photosensitive pigment, e.g., protist Euglena
• Eyes are complex organs
9. FLAT-SHEET EYES
• Provide some sense of light direction and
intensity
• Most often seen in larval forms or as accessory
eyes in adults
10. CUP-SHAPED EYES
• Retinal sheet is folded to form a narrow aperture
• Better discrimination of light direction and intensity
• Seen in the Nautilus
11. VESICULAR EYES
• Use a lens in the aperture to improve clarity and
intensity
• Lens refracts light and focuses it onto a single
point on the retina
• Present in most vertebrates
13. COMPOUND EYES
Most complex convex eyes found in arthropods
Composed of ommatidia
Form images in two ways
Apposition compound eyes – ommatidium
operate independently; afferent neurons make
interconnection to generate an image
Superposition compound eyes – ommatidium
work together to form an image on the retina
14. THE VERTEBRATE EYE
Forms bright, focused
images
Parts
Sclera – white of
the eye
Cornea –
transparent layer
Choroid –
pigmented layer
Tapetum – layer in
the choroid of
nocturnal animals
that reflects light
15. THE VERTEBRATE EYE, CONT.
Parts
Iris – two layers of
pigmented smooth
muscle
Pupil – opening in iris
Lens – focuses image
Ciliary body – muscles
for changing lens shape
Aqueous humor – fluid in
the anterior chamber
Vitreous humor –
gelatinous mass in the
posterior chamber
16. IMAGE FORMATION
• Refraction – bending light
rays
• Both the cornea and the
lens act as converting
lens to focus light on the
retina
• In terrestrial vertebrates,
most of the refraction
occurs between the air
and the cornea
17. IMAGE ACCOMMODATION
• Accommodation - incoming light rays must converge on the retina to
produce a clear image
• Focal point – point at which light waves converge
• Focal distance – distance from a lens to its focal point
• Distant object: light rays are parallel when entering the lens
• Close object: light rays are not parallel when entering the lens and
must be refracted more
• Light rays are focused on the retina by changing the shape of the
lens
18. THE RETINA
• Arranged into several
layers
• Rods and cones are are
at the back and their tips
face backwards
• Axons of ganglion cells
join together to form the
optic nerve
• Optic nerve exits the
retina at the optic disk
(“blind spot”)
19. THE FOVEA
• Small depression in
the center of the
retina where
overlying bipolar and
ganglion cells are
pushed to the side
• Contains only cones
• Provides the
sharpest images
Figure 7.37a
20. SIGNAL PROCESSING IN THE RETINA
Rods and cones form different images
Rods
Principle of convergence – as many as 100 rods
synapse with a single bipolar cell many bipolar
cells synapse with a ganglion cell
Large visual field
Fuzzy image
Cones
One cone synapses with one bipolar cell which
connects to one ganglion cell
Small visual field
High resolution image
21. SIGNAL PROCESSING IN THE RETINA, CONT.
Complex “on”
and “off” regions
of the receptive
fields of
ganglion cells
improve their
ability to detect
contrasts
between light
and dark
Figure 7.39
22. THE BRAIN PROCESSES THE VISUAL SIGNAL
• Optic nerves
optic chiasm
optic tract lateral
geniculate nucleus
visual cortex
Figure 7.41
23. COLOR VISION
Detecting different wavelengths
of light
Requires multiple types of
photoreceptors with different
maximal sensitivities
Humans: three (trichromatic)
Most mammals: two
(dichromatic)
Some bird, reptiles and fish:
three, four, or five
(pentachromatic)