The handicap principle proposes that females prefer males with handicaps (mating characters that reduce survival chances) because handicaps are indicators of heritable viability. According to the principle, honest signals of quality must be costly to produce so that low-quality individuals cannot fake them. Examples of honest signals include a peacock's tail, which is eye-catching but heavy, and a gazelle's stotting behavior before fleeing from predators, which requires energy but signals the gazelle's strength. The principle suggests signals of quality effectively lower an individual's fitness but are affordable only by those of high biological fitness.

1. Zahavi’s Principle:
Proposer: The handicap principle is a hypothesis originally proposed in 1975 by biologist Amotz Zahavi.
It proposes that females prefer males with handicaps (mating characters that reduce survival chances) because
handicaps are indicators of heritable viability.
"An individual with a well-developed sexually selected character [such as a peacock's flashy tail] is an individual
which has survived a test. A female which could discriminate between a male possessing a sexually selected
character, from one without it, can discriminate between a male which has passed a test and one which has not
been tested. Females which selected males with the most developed characters can be sure that they have
selected from among the best genotypes of the male population. "
The handicap principle can be used to account for mating preferences in animals.
The principle relies on three chief doctrines
a) Animals communicate with each other through signals.
b) These signals, in order to be effective, must be honest.
c) Honest signals are expensive.
Why honest signals are expensive?
 Because signals do not come for free. They cost something (e.g. energy) to produce.
 The stronger you are, the more easily you can bear this cost.
 The nature of the handicap is such that a weak individual could not afford it, so you are signaling that
you are strong.
 The central idea is that sexually selected traits function like conspicuous consumption.
 The wealthy indulge in waste in order to advertise their wealth.
The Handicap Principle Implies That Signal Have to be Honest.
 The key idea here is that no female would choose a truly handicapped male to father her children.
 A desirable male is one who is fit in spite of the handicap he carries.
 The handicap works like a badge that announces quality. Only a confident individual can afford it.
 A handicap cannot be faked. This is what makes it honest, and reliable as a signal.
 This is because flaunting the handicap requires a genuine investment on the part of the animal.
 If an individual cannot afford to make that investment, it cannot afford to cheat.
Examples:
Some of the examples are:
 The courting peacock’s eye catching but heavy tail,
 The threatened gazelle’s spectacular but attention drawing jumps,
 The gullible crow’s feeding of baby cuckoos
 The singing larks-when being chased
Stotting behavior:
 Stotting refers to the up and down jumps exhibited by gazelles upon spotting a wolf or other predators,
prior to their running away.
 Scientists suggest that a gazelle that indulges in such a dangerous practice must be signaling its
physically fit status to the predator.

2.  By doing so, it is communicating to the predator that it has seen it (therefore the advantage of surprise is
lost), and it is strong enough to outrun the predator in a chase.
 Based on many field observations, it is known that very often predators faced with stotting gazelles leave
and look for other prey.
 The scientists propose this as an example of an honest signal that has evolved as a means of
communication between predator and prey.
 It involves an investment of energy on the part of the gazelle, and so cannot be faked.
 It would be suicidal for an unfit gazelle to attempt such jumps, it would only expose its inability sooner
and fall an easy prey.
Mating Displays:
 Typically, females invest more in their offspring than males do. So they need to be choosy in picking a
mate. They mate once in a season (mostly).
 Males, however, mate with several females in the short period of time when they are receptive therefore,
each male must do his best to attract, and mate with, as many females as possible.
The handicap principle is a hypothesis originally proposed in 1975 by biologist Amotz Zahavi to explain
how evolution may lead to "honest" or reliable signalingbetween animals which have an obvious motivation to
bluff or deceive each other.
The handicap principle suggests that reliable signals must be costly to the signaler, costing the signaler
something that could not be afforded by an individual with less of a particular trait.
For example, in the case of sexual selection, the theory suggests that animals of greater biological fitness signal
this status through handicapping behaviour or morphology that effectively lowers this quality. The central idea is
that sexually selected traits function like conspicuous consumption, signalling the ability to afford to squander a
resource. Receivers know that the signal indicates quality because inferior quality signallers cannot afford to
produce such wastefully extravagant signals.