1. The document discusses the roles and status of women during different periods of Indian history, focusing on the Mughal period.
2. It describes how Muslim aristocratic women during the Mughal Dynasty, such as Nur Jahan and Jahanara Begum, held influential positions and power. Nur Jahan effectively ruled the Mughal Empire from 1611-1627 while her husband Jahangir was dependent on alcohol and drugs.
3. Other notable women mentioned include Zebunnisa, the daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb, who was a poet, scholar, and patron of learning, and Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Emperor Shah Jahan and for whom the Taj Mah
The document provides information on the geography, climate, religions, and history of ancient India. It notes that India has a diverse geography defined by mountain ranges and fertile river valleys like the Indus Valley where early civilizations emerged. The climate is tropical with a wet and dry monsoon season. The three major religions that developed are Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Hinduism originated from the Vedas and later texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha and spread widely after the time of Ashoka. Jainism also grew prominent around 1000 AD and featured temples with images of saints. Alexander the Great's conquests in the 4th century BC introduced Greek
The document discusses the Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar in 1570. It divides the imperial officers of the Mughal state into 66 grades ranging from 10 to 10,000 based on their rank and status. The highest ranks were reserved for royal princes. Mansabdars were classified based on their zat (personal rank) and sawar (number of troops maintained). The system aimed to replace the feudal jagirdari system with direct allegiance to the emperor. It played an important role in administering and expanding the Mughal Empire during Akbar's reign.
The document summarizes the key factors that contributed to the rise of the Magadha kingdom in ancient India, including its strategic geographical location along important trade routes, fertile agricultural lands, mineral resources, growing population and economic prosperity, interaction of Aryan and non-Aryan cultures, and its control over important river ports along the Ganges river which allowed it to dominate trade in northern India. Politically, the rivalry among other states and lack of a unified resistance prevented opposition to Magadha's expansion and consolidation of power in the region.
The document provides an overview of Sangam literature and the Sangam period of ancient Tamil Nadu. Some key points:
- Sangam literature is one of the main sources for documenting the early history of Tamil Nadu and mentions kings and princes of the Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms.
- Sources include literary works as well as archaeological evidence. Literary sources include Sangam poems/texts and works by foreign travelers.
- The society was divided into peasants, laborers, artisans and other occupational groups rather than a strict caste system. Trade within India and abroad was an important part of the economy.
A brief history about ancient vedic civilization.The Vedic period (or Vedic age) ( c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, bringing with them their specific religious traditions.
The document provides details about the Mughal Empire from various literary and architectural sources. It describes Abul Fazl's literary work Ain-i-Akbari which discusses the administration and household of Emperor Akbar across 5 books. It also summarizes important Mughal architectural monuments like Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid and Red Fort. Furthermore, it outlines the six major Mughal emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb and highlights some of their key military conquests, administrative reforms and policies.
The Bhakti movement originated in India as a religious concept of devotional surrender to a supreme god for salvation. It emerged in opposition to Jainism and Buddhism which were supported by merchants and the state. Bhakti exponents believed devotion could overcome fate unlike these other religions. The movement was spread by many poet-saints from the 7th-10th centuries in South India and later all of India from the 14th century onward. Key figures included Ramananda, Chaitanya, Mirabai, Sur Das, Kabir, Nanak, Ravidas, and Namadeva who composed devotional poems in local languages to spread the message of bhakti.
The document provides information on the geography, climate, religions, and history of ancient India. It notes that India has a diverse geography defined by mountain ranges and fertile river valleys like the Indus Valley where early civilizations emerged. The climate is tropical with a wet and dry monsoon season. The three major religions that developed are Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Hinduism originated from the Vedas and later texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha and spread widely after the time of Ashoka. Jainism also grew prominent around 1000 AD and featured temples with images of saints. Alexander the Great's conquests in the 4th century BC introduced Greek
The document discusses the Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar in 1570. It divides the imperial officers of the Mughal state into 66 grades ranging from 10 to 10,000 based on their rank and status. The highest ranks were reserved for royal princes. Mansabdars were classified based on their zat (personal rank) and sawar (number of troops maintained). The system aimed to replace the feudal jagirdari system with direct allegiance to the emperor. It played an important role in administering and expanding the Mughal Empire during Akbar's reign.
The document summarizes the key factors that contributed to the rise of the Magadha kingdom in ancient India, including its strategic geographical location along important trade routes, fertile agricultural lands, mineral resources, growing population and economic prosperity, interaction of Aryan and non-Aryan cultures, and its control over important river ports along the Ganges river which allowed it to dominate trade in northern India. Politically, the rivalry among other states and lack of a unified resistance prevented opposition to Magadha's expansion and consolidation of power in the region.
The document provides an overview of Sangam literature and the Sangam period of ancient Tamil Nadu. Some key points:
- Sangam literature is one of the main sources for documenting the early history of Tamil Nadu and mentions kings and princes of the Chola, Pandya and Chera kingdoms.
- Sources include literary works as well as archaeological evidence. Literary sources include Sangam poems/texts and works by foreign travelers.
- The society was divided into peasants, laborers, artisans and other occupational groups rather than a strict caste system. Trade within India and abroad was an important part of the economy.
A brief history about ancient vedic civilization.The Vedic period (or Vedic age) ( c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE) was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, bringing with them their specific religious traditions.
The document provides details about the Mughal Empire from various literary and architectural sources. It describes Abul Fazl's literary work Ain-i-Akbari which discusses the administration and household of Emperor Akbar across 5 books. It also summarizes important Mughal architectural monuments like Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid and Red Fort. Furthermore, it outlines the six major Mughal emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb and highlights some of their key military conquests, administrative reforms and policies.
The Bhakti movement originated in India as a religious concept of devotional surrender to a supreme god for salvation. It emerged in opposition to Jainism and Buddhism which were supported by merchants and the state. Bhakti exponents believed devotion could overcome fate unlike these other religions. The movement was spread by many poet-saints from the 7th-10th centuries in South India and later all of India from the 14th century onward. Key figures included Ramananda, Chaitanya, Mirabai, Sur Das, Kabir, Nanak, Ravidas, and Namadeva who composed devotional poems in local languages to spread the message of bhakti.
Indian culture had a significant influence on Southeast Asia between 200 BC and the 15th century. Indian traders, missionaries, and monks spread Hinduism and Buddhism through peaceful means rather than military conquest. They introduced Indian aspects like architecture, religion, art, culture, society, literature, maritime activities, trade, cuisine, and language. Key examples include Angkor Wat in Cambodia, which shows Dravidian architectural influences, and Prambanan temple in Java, which blended Buddhism and Dravidian styles. Indian missionaries and their role in spreading culture through ashrams and hermitages were also important to cultural exchange. Overall, Indian cultural dominance was established through maritime activities, trade routes, and powerful kingdoms with Indian names and heritage
1) The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka and lasted until 1565, ruling much of southern India.
2) Society followed the caste system strictly, with Brahmins honored and holding important roles. Kshatriyas served in the army, while Vaishyas and Sudras worked in trades and agriculture.
3) The empire was known for its grand architecture, including ornate temples built in the Dravidian style with gopuras, mandapas, and sculptures depicting Hindu gods. Hampi served as the capital with its royal palace complex.
Rajputs are members of warrior clans in parts of northern India and Pakistan who claim descent from royal Hindu lineages. They rose to prominence between the 6th-12th centuries when they ruled many princely states. Under the British Raj in the late 18th-early 19th centuries, the Rajput states became princely states under indirect British control. Rajputs trace their lineages to solar, lunar and fire deities and emphasize martial traditions, kinship and pride in their royal heritage.
The document discusses four major Western religions: Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam. It provides origins and founding figures for each religion. Judaism originated with Abraham and Moses, Zoroastrianism with Zoroaster, Christianity with Jesus Christ and his disciples, and Islam with the prophet Muhammad. The document outlines some of the core beliefs and practices of each religion.
The Mughal administrative system introduced major changes under Akbar, including a centralized despotic structure based on the military mansabdari system. Administration was hierarchical from the center to provinces to local areas. Key officials included subedars for provinces, faujdars for districts, and kotwals responsible for law and order. The system emphasized revenue collection and maintaining records while incorporating some local self-governance through panchayats. Overall it established an elaborate and uniform administration across the empire but lacked elements of democracy, self-criticism, and endogenous reform.
The term “Secular” means being "separate" from religion, or having no religious basis. A secular person is one who does not owe his moral values to any religion. His values are the product of his rational and scientific thinking.
The document provides information on the Delhi Sultanate period in India between 1206-1526 CE. It summarizes that five dynasties ruled from Delhi during this period, establishing the Delhi Sultanate. The dynasties were the Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty, and Lodhi Dynasty. It provides some key details about rulers like Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and the administrative structure of the Sultanate. Archaeological sources like inscriptions and monuments from this period are also mentioned.
This is about the history of the Maurya and Gupta Empire that is commonly not tackled in World History class.
TO DOWNLOAD, PLEASE CLICK THE LINK: https://dlsharefile.com/file/1054610895
THANK YOU!
The Vedic period in India lasted from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. During this time, the Aryans migrated to India from Central Asia and established Vedic civilization. They developed the Vedic culture and scriptures known as the Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Vedic society was divided into four classes known as varnas. The Aryans were primarily pastoral people but also practiced agriculture. Their social and economic lives were centered around cattle rearing and seasonal crop farming.
The Gupta Empire from the 4th to 6th centuries CE was a high point of India's ancient history, known as the Golden Age of India. Sources that provide information about this period include accounts by foreign travelers like Fa-Hien and works by the poet Kalidasa. Archaeologically, the Allahabad pillar inscription praised the emperor Samudragupta, while the Deogarh Temple showed architectural and artistic achievements. The large Nalanda University attracted students from across Asia. The Guptas created a sophisticated administrative system and the scientist Aryabhata made important advances in mathematics and astronomy. Overall, this was a period of extensive development and prosperity under strong imperial rule.
- The document provides an overview of ancient Indian civilization and geography, focusing on the Indus Valley Civilization from around 3000 BCE, including major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. It then discusses the later invasion of the Aryans around 1500 BCE, who introduced concepts like Sanskrit, Hinduism, and the caste system. Key beliefs of Hinduism are outlined, including concepts of dharma, karma, and samsara. The rigid and hierarchical caste system is also summarized.
This document discusses the history of bhakti movements in North and South India between the 7th-15th centuries. It covers major saints from both the Sagun and Nirgun traditions that spread devotion to deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Ram, and Krishna. It also mentions the influence of Sufism during this period and how saints like Kabir, Tulsidas, and Surdas composed influential works in local languages that crossed caste barriers and shaped popular religion. Overall, the bhakti movement promoted a more inclusive form of worship and enriched Indian literature.
This document provides a history of the Vijayanagara Kingdom, which was one of the major Hindu kingdoms in South India between 1336 and 1646 AD. It summarizes the four dynasties that ruled Vijayanagara: the Sangama dynasty (1336-1486 AD), the Saluva dynasty (1486-1505 AD), the Tuluva dynasty (1505-1567 AD), and the Aravidu dynasty. It focuses on key rulers from each dynasty such as Bukka Raya I, Devaraya II, Krishnadevaraya, and Aliya Ramaraya. It describes their military conquests, administrative achievements, and patronage of arts and culture. The document
Our Constitution and Its Salient FeaturesSuhas Mandlik
Our constitution came into force on January 26, 1950, which is now celebrated as Republic Day. It defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. Some key features include:
- Single citizenship for all Indians
- Universal adult franchise, giving all citizens over 18 the right to vote
- Fundamental rights like equality, freedom of speech and religion
- Fundamental duties of citizens to uphold the constitution
- Directive principles guiding state policy on social welfare
- Definition of India as a welfare state providing social services
Secularism in India means equal treatment of all religions by the state, unlike Western secularism which separates religion and state. Indian religions co-existed for centuries before the arrival of Islam, as evidenced by Ashoka and Harsha accepting different faiths and the proximity of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves at Ellora suggesting religious tolerance. Akbar's tomb incorporated elements of Islam and Hinduism, and a Hindu temple in Jaipur merged styles of multiple religions, showing India's historic secularism and diversity. The young generation understands secularism to mean freedom of religion and freedom from religious imposition.
The document summarizes the major causes and events of the 1857 revolt in India against British rule. It describes how sepoys in Delhi appealed to the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah to lead the revolt. The revolt was caused by resentment among Indians towards British economic exploitation, annexation of territories, and racial discrimination. Key figures in the revolt included Rani Laxmi Bai, Mangal Pandey, and Bahadur Shah Zafar. The revolt was eventually suppressed by the British army, though it marked the end of East India Company rule and inspired later Indian independence movements.
The document discusses the Vedic period in India, divided into the Early Vedic period from 1500-1000 BC and the Later Vedic period from 1000-500 BC. It covers the literary sources of Vedas and epics from each period and the archaeological sources of iron and pottery. A comparative study is provided on the family structure, women's status, and caste system between the Early and Later Vedic periods, showing a decline in women's status and rise of a more rigid caste hierarchy over time.
Varnashrama Dharma outlines the Hindu social system of four classes (varnas) and four stages of life (ashramas). The varnas are Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants), and Shudras (laborers). Each varna has specific duties and responsibilities. Western views see the varnas as a means for Aryans to subjugate original inhabitants, while Brahmanical views cite ancient texts describing the varnas as originating from different parts of the creator's body to serve different purposes in maintaining society.
The Dravidian Movement emerged in the early 20th century in response to Brahmin domination in the Madras Presidency region of British India. The spread of Western education and Christianity gave non-Brahmin castes new awareness and resentment of upper caste control. The Justice Party was formed in 1917 to counter Congress Party influence, but it had a narrow urban base. In 1925, E.V. Ramaswami ("Periyar") founded the self-respect movement with a Dravidian ideology to remove Brahmin social and political control. It grew mass support and merged with the Justice Party in 1944 to form the Dravida Kazhagam led by Periyar. Later, a split formed the
Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohammad of Ghur were rulers from the 11th-12th century who invaded northern India from their power bases in Ghazni and Ghur, located in modern day Afghanistan. Mahmud raided India 17 times between 1001-1025, plundering wealthy temples and cities to fund his empire. Mohammad of Ghur conquered the Rajput kingdoms in the late 12th century and established the Delhi Sultanate under his general Qutb al-Din Aibak, laying the foundations for Turkic rule in northern India.
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based in Delhi that ruled northern parts of India for 320 years between 1206-1526 CE. It was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and passed through five successive dynasties of Turkic and Afghan origin - the Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. The Delhi Sultanate built important architectural landmarks like the Alai Gate and Qutub Minar during the Mamluk and Khilji periods, before being replaced by the Mughal Empire in 1526.
Indian culture had a significant influence on Southeast Asia between 200 BC and the 15th century. Indian traders, missionaries, and monks spread Hinduism and Buddhism through peaceful means rather than military conquest. They introduced Indian aspects like architecture, religion, art, culture, society, literature, maritime activities, trade, cuisine, and language. Key examples include Angkor Wat in Cambodia, which shows Dravidian architectural influences, and Prambanan temple in Java, which blended Buddhism and Dravidian styles. Indian missionaries and their role in spreading culture through ashrams and hermitages were also important to cultural exchange. Overall, Indian cultural dominance was established through maritime activities, trade routes, and powerful kingdoms with Indian names and heritage
1) The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka and lasted until 1565, ruling much of southern India.
2) Society followed the caste system strictly, with Brahmins honored and holding important roles. Kshatriyas served in the army, while Vaishyas and Sudras worked in trades and agriculture.
3) The empire was known for its grand architecture, including ornate temples built in the Dravidian style with gopuras, mandapas, and sculptures depicting Hindu gods. Hampi served as the capital with its royal palace complex.
Rajputs are members of warrior clans in parts of northern India and Pakistan who claim descent from royal Hindu lineages. They rose to prominence between the 6th-12th centuries when they ruled many princely states. Under the British Raj in the late 18th-early 19th centuries, the Rajput states became princely states under indirect British control. Rajputs trace their lineages to solar, lunar and fire deities and emphasize martial traditions, kinship and pride in their royal heritage.
The document discusses four major Western religions: Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam. It provides origins and founding figures for each religion. Judaism originated with Abraham and Moses, Zoroastrianism with Zoroaster, Christianity with Jesus Christ and his disciples, and Islam with the prophet Muhammad. The document outlines some of the core beliefs and practices of each religion.
The Mughal administrative system introduced major changes under Akbar, including a centralized despotic structure based on the military mansabdari system. Administration was hierarchical from the center to provinces to local areas. Key officials included subedars for provinces, faujdars for districts, and kotwals responsible for law and order. The system emphasized revenue collection and maintaining records while incorporating some local self-governance through panchayats. Overall it established an elaborate and uniform administration across the empire but lacked elements of democracy, self-criticism, and endogenous reform.
The term “Secular” means being "separate" from religion, or having no religious basis. A secular person is one who does not owe his moral values to any religion. His values are the product of his rational and scientific thinking.
The document provides information on the Delhi Sultanate period in India between 1206-1526 CE. It summarizes that five dynasties ruled from Delhi during this period, establishing the Delhi Sultanate. The dynasties were the Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty, and Lodhi Dynasty. It provides some key details about rulers like Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and the administrative structure of the Sultanate. Archaeological sources like inscriptions and monuments from this period are also mentioned.
This is about the history of the Maurya and Gupta Empire that is commonly not tackled in World History class.
TO DOWNLOAD, PLEASE CLICK THE LINK: https://dlsharefile.com/file/1054610895
THANK YOU!
The Vedic period in India lasted from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. During this time, the Aryans migrated to India from Central Asia and established Vedic civilization. They developed the Vedic culture and scriptures known as the Vedas - the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Vedic society was divided into four classes known as varnas. The Aryans were primarily pastoral people but also practiced agriculture. Their social and economic lives were centered around cattle rearing and seasonal crop farming.
The Gupta Empire from the 4th to 6th centuries CE was a high point of India's ancient history, known as the Golden Age of India. Sources that provide information about this period include accounts by foreign travelers like Fa-Hien and works by the poet Kalidasa. Archaeologically, the Allahabad pillar inscription praised the emperor Samudragupta, while the Deogarh Temple showed architectural and artistic achievements. The large Nalanda University attracted students from across Asia. The Guptas created a sophisticated administrative system and the scientist Aryabhata made important advances in mathematics and astronomy. Overall, this was a period of extensive development and prosperity under strong imperial rule.
- The document provides an overview of ancient Indian civilization and geography, focusing on the Indus Valley Civilization from around 3000 BCE, including major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. It then discusses the later invasion of the Aryans around 1500 BCE, who introduced concepts like Sanskrit, Hinduism, and the caste system. Key beliefs of Hinduism are outlined, including concepts of dharma, karma, and samsara. The rigid and hierarchical caste system is also summarized.
This document discusses the history of bhakti movements in North and South India between the 7th-15th centuries. It covers major saints from both the Sagun and Nirgun traditions that spread devotion to deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Ram, and Krishna. It also mentions the influence of Sufism during this period and how saints like Kabir, Tulsidas, and Surdas composed influential works in local languages that crossed caste barriers and shaped popular religion. Overall, the bhakti movement promoted a more inclusive form of worship and enriched Indian literature.
This document provides a history of the Vijayanagara Kingdom, which was one of the major Hindu kingdoms in South India between 1336 and 1646 AD. It summarizes the four dynasties that ruled Vijayanagara: the Sangama dynasty (1336-1486 AD), the Saluva dynasty (1486-1505 AD), the Tuluva dynasty (1505-1567 AD), and the Aravidu dynasty. It focuses on key rulers from each dynasty such as Bukka Raya I, Devaraya II, Krishnadevaraya, and Aliya Ramaraya. It describes their military conquests, administrative achievements, and patronage of arts and culture. The document
Our Constitution and Its Salient FeaturesSuhas Mandlik
Our constitution came into force on January 26, 1950, which is now celebrated as Republic Day. It defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. Some key features include:
- Single citizenship for all Indians
- Universal adult franchise, giving all citizens over 18 the right to vote
- Fundamental rights like equality, freedom of speech and religion
- Fundamental duties of citizens to uphold the constitution
- Directive principles guiding state policy on social welfare
- Definition of India as a welfare state providing social services
Secularism in India means equal treatment of all religions by the state, unlike Western secularism which separates religion and state. Indian religions co-existed for centuries before the arrival of Islam, as evidenced by Ashoka and Harsha accepting different faiths and the proximity of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves at Ellora suggesting religious tolerance. Akbar's tomb incorporated elements of Islam and Hinduism, and a Hindu temple in Jaipur merged styles of multiple religions, showing India's historic secularism and diversity. The young generation understands secularism to mean freedom of religion and freedom from religious imposition.
The document summarizes the major causes and events of the 1857 revolt in India against British rule. It describes how sepoys in Delhi appealed to the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah to lead the revolt. The revolt was caused by resentment among Indians towards British economic exploitation, annexation of territories, and racial discrimination. Key figures in the revolt included Rani Laxmi Bai, Mangal Pandey, and Bahadur Shah Zafar. The revolt was eventually suppressed by the British army, though it marked the end of East India Company rule and inspired later Indian independence movements.
The document discusses the Vedic period in India, divided into the Early Vedic period from 1500-1000 BC and the Later Vedic period from 1000-500 BC. It covers the literary sources of Vedas and epics from each period and the archaeological sources of iron and pottery. A comparative study is provided on the family structure, women's status, and caste system between the Early and Later Vedic periods, showing a decline in women's status and rise of a more rigid caste hierarchy over time.
Varnashrama Dharma outlines the Hindu social system of four classes (varnas) and four stages of life (ashramas). The varnas are Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants), and Shudras (laborers). Each varna has specific duties and responsibilities. Western views see the varnas as a means for Aryans to subjugate original inhabitants, while Brahmanical views cite ancient texts describing the varnas as originating from different parts of the creator's body to serve different purposes in maintaining society.
The Dravidian Movement emerged in the early 20th century in response to Brahmin domination in the Madras Presidency region of British India. The spread of Western education and Christianity gave non-Brahmin castes new awareness and resentment of upper caste control. The Justice Party was formed in 1917 to counter Congress Party influence, but it had a narrow urban base. In 1925, E.V. Ramaswami ("Periyar") founded the self-respect movement with a Dravidian ideology to remove Brahmin social and political control. It grew mass support and merged with the Justice Party in 1944 to form the Dravida Kazhagam led by Periyar. Later, a split formed the
Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohammad of Ghur were rulers from the 11th-12th century who invaded northern India from their power bases in Ghazni and Ghur, located in modern day Afghanistan. Mahmud raided India 17 times between 1001-1025, plundering wealthy temples and cities to fund his empire. Mohammad of Ghur conquered the Rajput kingdoms in the late 12th century and established the Delhi Sultanate under his general Qutb al-Din Aibak, laying the foundations for Turkic rule in northern India.
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based in Delhi that ruled northern parts of India for 320 years between 1206-1526 CE. It was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and passed through five successive dynasties of Turkic and Afghan origin - the Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. The Delhi Sultanate built important architectural landmarks like the Alai Gate and Qutub Minar during the Mamluk and Khilji periods, before being replaced by the Mughal Empire in 1526.
Teachings And Philosophy Of Bhakti And Sufi SaintsShivansh Khurana
The Document is associated with the information related to the teachings and philosophy of Bhakti and Sufi Saints and also in concluding their importance.
This Presentation contains plenty of infomation about the archaelogical resources of India's one of the most glorious periods The Sultanate Period. Hope you enjoy it.
The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Turkic Mamluks who established control over northern India and defended the region from Mongol invasions. They introduced Islamic architecture, coins, and governance, destroying some Hindu temples to build mosques. In the 14th century, the Sultanate expanded south but rebellions increased due to fluctuating taxes that burdened peasants. The last ruler was defeated in 1526 by the Mughals, ending the Sultanate's legacy of protecting India and facilitating trade, though they maintained social separation from Hindus.
The document provides information on major proponents of the Bhakti movement in India, including Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madhavacharya, Vallabhacharya, Ramananda, Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Namadeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Narsinh Mehta, Kabir, and Tukaram. It discusses their philosophical contributions, major works, and languages used. Key figures like Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, and Vallabhacharya founded new traditions or schools of thought, while poets like Mirabai, Tulsidas, Kabir, and
Bhakti traditions flourished in South India beginning in the 6th-9th centuries through Vaishnava and Shaiva saints. These bhakti saints rejected the caste system and emphasized morality, purity of heart, and service. They expressed their devotion through songs, poetry and music, attracting many followers. Their inclusive teachings have continued to influence Hinduism to the present day.
The Bhakti movement emphasized intense devotion and surrender to God as the path to salvation. It promoted the ideas of unity of God, devotion through repetition of names, rejection of rituals and idol worship, and openness to different religious views. The movement grew between the 7th and 12th centuries through poet saints in South India and Sufi mystics in North India. It aimed to spiritually uplift Hindus experiencing difficulties under Muslim rule by refocusing them on loving devotion to God.
The document summarizes various Bhakti-Sufi traditions in India, including their integration, differences from Vedic traditions, criticism of the caste system, and notable figures. It discusses how different religious groups combined over time through the spread of Brahmanical ideas and reworking beliefs of lower castes. Key figures mentioned who protested against patriarchal and caste norms include Alvars, Nayanars, Lingayats, Kabir, Nanak, and Guru Gobind Singh. The document also provides brief descriptions of Sufi saints Mirabai and Kabir as examples of sagun and nirgun worship traditions.
This document discusses the origins and principles of Sufism. It states that Sufism dates back to early humanity but the term was first used in the 9th century AD to refer to Muslim mystics who sought closeness to God through asceticism and love. The document outlines that Sufis believe in following both Islamic law and additional spiritual practices to reach truth. It explains some of the basic Sufi principles like living with high morality, not being bound by rituals, and seeing love for humanity as the greatest religion.
The document provides details about life under the Delhi Sultanate between 1210-1526. It describes the various social classes - the aristocracy and ruling elite at the top, followed by priests, town dwellers including artisans and merchants, and peasants at the bottom who paid most taxes. The Sultanate period saw the introduction of new architectural styles using domes and pointed arches, as well as developments in music, dance, and food. However, painting declined until revived by the Rajputs. Persian also replaced Sanskrit as the official language during this time.
The Mughal rulers were great builders who constructed impressive architectural works like mausoleums, mosques, forts and gardens. Mughal architecture was influenced by Persian styles and is known for features like bulbous domes, minarets and ornate decoration. Sher Shah built several monuments continuing the Lodi style, such as the Purana Quila fort in Delhi and his magnificent tomb in Sasaram. Akbar was a great patron of architecture, combining Hindu and Persian influences in buildings at Fatehpur Sikri and Agra Fort. The Taj Mahal, commissioned by Shah Jahan for his wife, is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture.
Mughal art and architecture - Thesmi ThomasThesmi Thomas
The slide give a basic idea about the lifestyle of during Mughal rule. This slide mainly focus on Mughal architecture, Mughal music, Mughal literature and Mughal paintings.
The document provides an overview of the social structure and history of the Mughal Empire in India. It discusses the major emperors from Babur to Aurangzeb who ruled from 1526 to 1707. It covers aspects of religion, culture, economy, social classes, the role of women, and art during the Mughal period. Akbar is highlighted for his relatively high tolerance for Hindus and attempt to create a new syncretic faith, though religious tensions increased under later rulers.
Mughal architecture was greatly influenced by Persian styles with the coming of the Mughals to India. They constructed excellent mausoleums, mosques, forts, gardens and cities across India. Some of the most prominent examples of Mughal architecture include Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza, Akbar's Tomb in Sikandra, Itmad-Ud-Daula's Tomb in Agra, the Jama Masjid and Red Fort in Delhi, and the Taj Mahal in Agra. Mughal architecture reached its peak under Shah Jahan, known for his buildings made of white marble richly
Early civilizations arose in India and China along major river valleys. In India, the earliest civilization flourished for about 1000 years along the Indus River before vanishing. It included urban planning and a written language. Chinese civilization first developed along the Huang He River, with the Shang Dynasty establishing a hierarchical society led by a king. Confucianism and Daoism later emerged as dominant philosophies. The Mughal Empire rose to power in India and made significant cultural contributions, while European traders gradually increased their influence in both regions over this period.
The xuanzang ((HUIEN TSANG) A Chinese Pilgrim of Ancient IndiaAman Kumar
Xuanzang was a 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk who traveled to India to learn more about Buddhism. He traveled along the Silk Road, passing through cities like Turfan, Samarkand, Balkh, and Bamyan. His main purpose was to study at the famous Nalanda University. While in India between 630-645 CE, he visited many important Buddhist sites and studied under scholars. He returned to China with numerous Buddhist texts and scriptures. Xuanzang's detailed accounts of places he visited helped later identify important archaeological sites in India like Nalanda University.
The document provides information about various aspects of Indian culture and history:
- Indian civilization originated in ancient India and spread its influence on language and culture to many parts of Europe and Asia. Major Indian epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata are an important part of Indian literature.
- Sanskrit was the main language of ancient Indian literature. Other aspects of Indian culture discussed include classical dance forms, festivals like Holi connected to harvests, and important architectural sites like the Taj Mahal and Khajuraho temples known for their sculptures.
- The document thus gives a broad overview of the long history and diverse cultural traditions of India through discussing its literature, performing arts, religions, and
The document discusses the advent of Islam in Bengal through various means:
1) Arab traders brought Islam to the Bengal coast as early as the 8th century through maritime trade.
2) The Muslim conquest of Bengal began in the 13th century when Turkic armies invaded and established rule over the region.
3) Sufi preachers greatly contributed to the spread of Islam by establishing khanqahs (Sufi centers) and missionary activities that attracted converts.
4) Lower caste Hindus and Buddhists converted to Islam to escape social inequalities, while some upper caste Hindus also converted through marriage or ideological attraction to Islamic ideals.
Akbar was one of the greatest Mughal emperors, reigning from 1556 to 1605 and expanding the empire. He was a religious reformer who promoted tolerance of all faiths and opened government positions to people of all backgrounds. Through his marriages to Hindu, Muslim, and Christian women, he sought to transform Muslim interactions with non-Muslims in India. His empire was the largest and most prosperous in the world at the time, extending from Afghanistan to Bengal.
I apologize, but I do not have enough context to identify the socialist leader being referred to. Could you please provide more details from the question or context?
This document discusses early travel writings from China, Persia, and Egypt between 300-1200 AD along the Silk Road. It then focuses on accounts from two Chinese travelers: Fa-Hien in the 5th century who traveled through India and provided valuable descriptions; and Hieun Tsiang in the 7th century who studied extensively at Nalanda University in India before returning to China with religious texts. The document also summarizes the writings of the Persian scholar Alberuni from the 11th century who learned about Hindu religion, science, and culture during 13 years in India. Finally, it briefly mentions Marco Polo's famous late 13th century travels through Asia and China.
The document provides biographical information on several Mughal emperors who ruled India from the 16th to 18th centuries, including Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. It discusses their major military campaigns and territorial expansions. It also describes their contributions to art, architecture, and religious policies. The decline of the Mughal Empire is linked to Aurangzeb's religious intolerance and overexpansion through constant warfare, which drained imperial resources and weakened centralized authority.
The document provides a summary of the origins and history of the Mughal Empire in India. It discusses how the Mughals were descended from Mongol rulers and had absorbed Persian culture. It outlines some of the major Mughal emperors including Babur, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. It notes that Akbar established an efficient administration and relations with local Hindu kingdoms, while later emperors expanded the empire through conquest but also contributed to its eventual decline.
Hello Everyone,
Myself B.Sanjana Bhaskar,
This is a ppt presentation of "Great women and their importance from ancient to modern of Indian Country"
Any student can save the ppt for education, knowledge purpose or Any faculty can save for teaching purpose.
No copyrights are included.
Hope it helps you!
Thank you.
Hello Everyone,
Myself I.Neela, I'm an Assistant Professor at Telangana, IN
I've made this ppt for teaching students. but i'm uploading this ppt so that it helps all the students, research scholars and Faculty. NO COPYRIGHTS.
Thank you
Women status of during great Mughal's periodDolehKhan
Status of Women In India during great Mughal's Period
The role of women in India has in fact been a ‘loss and gain’ business, with their influence fluctuating from time to time. This book attempts to examine the contribution of women in the field of literature under the Islamic rule in India. During the Sultanate as well as the Mughal period, although the status of women was comparatively lower than their male counterparts, this period saw some significant literary contributions from women. This book first analyses the status of women during the Islamic rule in India and participation of women in Mughal’s field, and then outlines their significant literary contributions.
About Author: Dev Tiwari, He is PhD & Researcher, Department of Persian Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and New Delhi, India. He writes many books at Persian Education. He like to analyze the history of Great Mughal’s and including the status of women in Mogul’s period.
Keywords: Mughal period, Persian literature, Women in Persian, Female Education
Introduction: -
The status of women saw a great decline in the medieval period, slowly worsening their position in the society. During this period, female infanticide, child marriage, Purdah, Jauhar, and Sati were the main social evils contributing to the low status of women and hindering their overall development.
The document provides a summary of the history of empires and kingdoms in ancient and medieval India. It discusses the Maurya Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE and the Kushan Empire that ruled parts of India from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. It then covers the golden ages of the Gupta Empire in northern India and the Chola Empire in southern India between the 4th to 6th centuries CE. Finally, it examines the Mughal Empire that ruled much of India from the 16th to 18th centuries and the impact of Islam on the subcontinent.
The document provides an overview of Asian literature from China, India, and Japan. It discusses some of the earliest civilizations and dynasties in China, including the Shang Dynasty and Confucianism. In India, it outlines the Vedas and important epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Japanese literature is traced from early writings like the Kojiki to poetic forms such as Noh plays, Haiku, and the Manyo Shu poetry collection.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The document provides a detailed overview of the geography, history, and culture of India. It describes the Indian subcontinent's diverse terrain, including the Himalayan mountains, the Ganges river valley, the Indus river valley, and coastal plains. It traces the development of early civilizations like the Indus Valley civilization as well as the later arrival and settlement of Indo-European peoples known as Aryans. The Aryans established Vedic religion and Sanskrit, and introduced social hierarchies like the caste system. Major empires that rose and fell in India are also summarized.
The document provides a detailed overview of the geography, history, and culture of India. It describes the Indian subcontinent's diverse terrain, including the Himalayan mountains, the Ganges river valley, the Indus river valley, and coastal plains. It traces the development of civilization in the Indus Valley as well as the later arrival and settlement of Indo-European peoples known as Aryans. The Aryans established Vedic religion and Sanskrit, and introduced social hierarchies like the caste system. Major empires like the Maurya and Gupta dynasties unified parts of India at different points. The document also examines aspects of Indian society, economy, and culture through history.
This book is a blend of history and fiction for a readable personified presentation of the Hindu mindset which appeared in the later half of the nineteenth century, after the demise of the Mughal Empire and the end of the Muslim rule in India.
It is a saga in a racy narrative of the life and time of a man who was extraordinarily intelligent, an intrepid fighter for his convictions, a master strategist and a fearless nationalist personifying the Hindu psyche of the post-Mughal renaissance period seeking inspiration from Chanakya’s Takshashila.
1. The document discusses the origins and spread of Islam in India through Muslim invaders and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 1100s. It then covers the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire from Babur's founding of the empire in 1526 until its decline in the late 1700s under Aurangzeb's rule as local powers grew stronger. 2. It provides details on key Mughal rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan who built the Taj Mahal, and Aurangzeb, whose religious oppression weakened the empire. 3. As the Mughal Empire declined in the late 1700s, European powers like the Portuguese, Dutch, French and English established
The document discusses different types of divisional organizational structures, including those organized by geography, products/services, and clients. It notes that a divisional structure groups functions into divisions based on these categories. The key types are geographic, product/service, and client structures. Advantages include allowing growth and a focus on specific markets, while disadvantages include increased complexity and communication barriers between departments.
This document discusses parallelism in writing. It defines parallelism as using similar grammatical structures for similar parts of a sentence. Using parallel structure allows writing to flow smoothly and avoids misunderstandings. Some examples of parallel structure include using nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, and adjectives with adjectives. Parallel structure should be used when joining items with coordinating conjunctions like "and" or "or", in comparisons, and with paired words like "both/and". The document provides exercises to identify correct and incorrect examples of parallel structure.
A stroke occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, depriving brain cells of oxygen and causing them to die. The effects of a stroke depend on which part of the brain is injured. Strokes can cause temporary or permanent disabilities. There are two main types of stroke - ischemic, caused by a clot blocking an artery, and hemorrhagic, caused by a burst blood vessel. Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, obesity, and older age. Prevention efforts focus on controlling risk factors through a healthy lifestyle and medications.
This document provides tips for creating effective presentation slides. It discusses selecting appropriate visuals like electronic slides, overhead transparencies, or whiteboards. When modifying graphics for slides, it recommends reducing details, avoiding repetition, shortening numbers, limiting data, and highlighting key points. The document then gives guidelines for limiting content on each slide to around 40 words or 6 lines of text with 6-7 words per line. It suggests using bullet points instead of long sentences and the active voice. Different methods and fonts are discussed, along with using color effectively and creating original designs. The document also covers adding animation, transitions, hyperlinks, and images to engage audiences.
Dalda Foods has launched a new tea whitener called CupShup to capitalize on Pakistan's popularity of tea whiteners. CupShup's brand mantra is "Rishte hai ghapshup se aur chai ho cupshup se", which translates relationships are strengthened by gossiping over a cup of CupShup tea. The mantra positions CupShup as prolonging conversations by making tea thicker and creamier. The emotional brand mantra focusing on relationships has helped CupShup perform well in terms of growth and market adoption.
The document discusses several issues related to management in Pakistan's health sector. It notes that healthcare management has not been recognized as a specialty in Pakistan despite being established as such globally. It highlights problems like lack of resources, outdated training approaches, and appointing non-professionals to management roles. The document advocates treating healthcare management as a distinct specialty requiring dedicated professional training and management teams to help improve Pakistan's health services and outcomes.
This document summarizes a speech given on Pakistan's Independence Day about the history and founding of Pakistan. It discusses the Muslim struggle for independence over 100 years, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League. It highlights Jinnah's role in uniting Muslims and creating an independent homeland. It emphasizes that Pakistan was founded on principles of equality, honesty and integrity. It calls on citizens to honor the sacrifices of ancestors by working unitedly for Pakistan's development and progress.
The document defines key concepts related to functions including: domain, codomain, range, one-to-one (injective) functions, increasing/decreasing functions, onto (surjective) functions, bijective functions, inverse functions, function composition, and floor and ceiling functions. It provides examples to illustrate these concepts and determine if specific functions have given properties.
This document contains contact information, personal details, academic qualifications, work experience, skills and objectives of Bhagwan Das. Some of his achievements include getting a 150% scholarship at IBA Karachi and working as a civil engineer. His field of interests are marketing, research and innovation. He worked as a teacher at Horizon Center of English from March 2013. His academic qualifications include a computer science degree from IBA Karachi and intermediate and matriculation from other institutions. His skills include Microsoft applications and interests are cricket, snooker, reading and singing.
Repeated floods in Pakistan over the last 8 years have significantly hindered the country's economic growth. Pakistan experiences major floods on average once every 3 years, causing GDP growth to average below 5%, lower than other developing countries. The most recent floods in 2010 caused direct monetary losses of PKR 855 billion and will likely reduce GDP growth in the current year by 0.3-0.5% due to damage to agriculture and transport sectors. Inflation is also expected to rise above 8% due to increased food prices from the floods. Banks with large agricultural loans portfolios also face greater risk of non-performing loans as recoveries may slow.
The document appears to be a test containing 12 sentence completion questions assessing vocabulary and comprehension. It covers topics like scientific theories, art movements, occupational jargon, temperaments, sound waves, medieval architecture, and more. The test taker did not attempt any questions, scoring 0 out of a possible 12 points. Explanations are provided for correct answers but no responses were given.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
BÀI TẬP DẠY THÊM TIẾNG ANH LỚP 7 CẢ NĂM FRIENDS PLUS SÁCH CHÂN TRỜI SÁNG TẠO ...
Women in mughal india 253 (1)
1. 1
WOMEN IN MUGHAL INDIA
India’s history goes back to at least 2500 B.C.E. when the Ancient Indus Valley
Civilization began along the Indus River. It is difficult to reconstruct this history as there
are no written records although they had seals that were probably used to designate
ownership for commercial purposes. We have artifacts from the major cities Mohenjo-
Daro, Harappan, and Lothal that give us some clues that women were held in high
esteem. Small statues of goddess figures appear, and in these regions today crafts people
are still making similar models. This Indus Valley Civilization was well organized with
pre-planned streets, homes, and buildings all using the same size brick. They had wells,
indoor toilets, and running water, all signs of a sophisticated society. There is evidence
that some of the beginnings of Hinduism began during this time. For instance, the
lingam of the god Shiva was a sacred symbol rising out of the ground and water.
Probably one of the goddess figures was a mother goddess, but that is not known for
sure. Due to weather or other natural disasters, the Indus River changed course. The
Aryans, nomadic tribesmen came into India via the Hindu Kush area, and later when they
achieved writing they made the claim that they conquered the ancient civilization.
Unfortunately, for them and India, nothing of their early writings survive until about the
third century B.C.E. when their emperor Ashoka erected huge pillars with the three-sided
lion figure (India’s symbol today) that were inscribed with his edicts. At this time too,
we finally have written manuscripts of the famous Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. Later the sacred Vedas, and Upanishads, were added that further delineated
Hinduism, but these too saw subtle negative changes for women. The Laws of Manu
2. 2
written earlier but utilized through much of India’s history has specific stipulations
addressing women’s restrictions and allowances. Please see the lecture on “Women in
Ancient India.” The avatars that developed during these ancient and early medieval
times, are still worshipped today in India, but as a mainly Hindu country, individuality of
religious beliefs is allowed. On the façade on their Hindu temples, all the avatars are
carved, while inside are the various individual shrines to these avatars. As Hinduism has
the belief that by following the necessary tenets, all people will eventually unite with the
universal soul or Brahman in nirvana. Thus we who might perceive these as deities are
actually reincarnated avatars of this universal soul, but they are treated as deities.
Families and individuals have their favorites, and massive festivals are held around India
to propreciate these figures. Kali, for whom we get the name of the city Calcutta, is both
a destroyed and creator, who accidentally killed her husband Shiva. Kali is also an avatar
for Parvati, who was married to Shiva too. Thus, throughout Indian history, both
genders of avatars are consistently worshipped. The caste system probably started with
the arrival of the Aryans, as the color of the skin denoted your status. Starting with four
castes, the system ultimately developed into hundreds of castes. While outlawed today,
the structure of society especially in the villages still follows the caste system. Individuals
must do their duty or dharma, and good or bad karma will ensue. When a person dies,
their soul is reincarnated either into a higher or lower caste depending on their actions
in their previous world. Being born a woman eventually was considered a punishment
for men, and society moved to a more misogynistic structure.
3. 3
Buddhism developed in India around 480 B.C.E., but never achieved the following
that it did when Buddhism was introduced to China, where Buddha became a god, and
had bodhisattvas as helpers for people to achieve nirvana. Virtually the last Mauryan
Emperor, Ashoka, converted to Buddhism to assuage his guilt feelings for killing many
fellow Indians in order to win some coveted land. He practiced religious toleration,
though; the majority of the Indian people did not convert to Buddhism.
The next major historical period in Indian History was the invasion of the Muslims
from Persia, eventually forming the Delhi Sultanate, and then several hundred years later
another invasion occurred from the North, when the Mongols and other Central Asian
tribes invaded India. From these various invasions (including descentants of Genghis
Khan and Tamerlane) the Mughal Empire was created in India where Muslim emperors
ruled a Hindu country that was multi-cultural of Persian, Muslim, Mongol, and Indian
influences. The number of practicing Muslims always was small for Hinduism was still
the preference for the majority of the sub-continent.
Muslim aristocratic women during the Mughal Dynasty that we know of were
talented and capable royal women that achieved much during their lives. The greatest
Mughal Emperor was Akbar (1545-1605), and it is during his time and later that our
knowledge of women’s contributions is manifested. As a Sufi Muslim, Akbar practiced
religious toleration, and he refused to accept the absolute primacy of Islam, but did
model his court on Persian ideas of Pomp and glitter, due to Persian Sufism he adopted.
He was a great patron of the arts even images of human beings as he said that he could
4. 4
not believe God, the giver of life would be repelled by the human beauty portrayed in
works of true art. These paintings give us many images of women at this time. The
chief industries under Akbar employed many women in India, especially in the textile
production, which was the major industry. Indian cotton goods clothed most of Africa
and Asia. Indigo dye and opium were other important Mughal exports.
Jahangir, Akbar’s son was the next ruler, but he rebelled against his father, and
likely had him poisoned. Jahangir’s name means world-seizer. It is his wife Nur Jahan
that became the de facto ruler of India intermittently between 1611-1627. Nur Jahan’s first
husband was probably killed at Jahangir’s instigation for as a widow she was brought to
court as a lady-in-waiting to Salim (the widow of the previous ruler Akbar). Jahangir
married her four years later, giving her the name Nur Mahal, which means light of the
palace.1 She was thirty-four at the time of the wedding. She soon gave her brother a
high-ranking position, second only to that given to her father, who was promoted to chief
minister. Nur Jahan soon made herself indispensable to the dependent alcoholic and
drug addict husband/emperor. It was Nur Jahan that made the decisions and others
carried them out since as a Muslim woman she was to be hidden or in purdah. The
British Ambassador Sir Thomas Roe wrote home to the English monarch that Nur Jahan
governed Jahangir and wound him up at her pleasure. During the final five years of Nur
Jahan’s rule and life she basically ruled without her relatives who were occupied
elsewhere, and her husband was too ill for governing. During this time she built the
“Baby Taj”, a mortuary tomb for her parents, siblings, and later for her deceased
1 Her originally Persian name was Mehr-on-Nes or Mehrunissa who was born in 1577
5. 5
husband. There is no evidence that Nur Jahan ever broke purdah. She even hunted
tigers from the closed howdah on top of an elephant with only the barrel of her musket
exposed between the curtains. In 1626 she rode into battle in an elephant litter
dispensing her orders through her eunuch. She also carried on business of the realm,
specializing in indigo and the cloth trade. While trying to keep Shah Jahan from
becoming the next emperor after Jahangir died, she was not successful, but she accepted
retirement with a pension of 200,000 rupees a year, dying just under the age of seventy.
Perhaps her major legacy is the influence of Persian attitudes and culture on India. As
the noted Historian Wolpert wrote: “Love of silks and perfumes, the custom of draping
both male and female figures with jewels, diaphanous veils, and peacock feathers, and the
delight in song and dance, intoxicating drink, and the pleasures of the harem are
habits…as deeply rooted in India as in Persia.”
Jahangir’s son by another woman other than Nur Jahan, Shah Jahan became the
next ruler. He had hundreds of wives in his harem, but his favorite wife was Mumtaz
Mahal, the niece of Nur Jahan. She died in childbirth delivering his fourteen child, and
built the famous Taj Mahal as a memorial and burial site for her. Apparently she had
requested such an idea, referring to a better structure than her aunt had built.
Jahanara Begum, 1614-81, was the eldest daughter of the Emperor Shah Jahan.2 A
Sufi Muslim too like her ancestors, she was also influential in politics. After the death of
her mother, Mumtaz, she enjoyed the status of first lady of the realm. She was given the
port of Surat (the major port on the west of India), and revenues from its maritime trade
2 Traditionally the title Begum was conferred upon women of royal or aristocratic rank, and was often used to
mean Queen.
6. 6
made her extremely wealthy. She paid for the construction of the famous Jama Masjid
Mosque in Agra in 1638 besides building other mosques and public buildings. She cared
for her father while he was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb for eight years, and she was
considered a saint of deep faith with mystical understanding, qualities she used to
comfort her father in the last years of his life. Zebunnisa (1638-1702), was the daughter
of Aurangzeb, and remained unmarried. She was a poet, a scholar of Arabic and Persian,
a hafiza of the Qur’an, and an excellent calligraphist.3 Zebunnisa was an active patron of
learning, and her court was a literary academy crowded with renowned scholars and
poets of the time. Her Persian poems frequently include the motif of the soul as a
captive or caged bird. She was ultimately imprisoned by her father for plotting against
him with her brother.
Aside from the famous women mentioned above, information on women in India
is hard to find. For the majority of women their roles were more traditional, but there is
evidence that women had the right to attend the court, but seated behind a screen while
the emperor did court business. Since these women could see the reactions of
petitioners when the men could not, their opinions often held weight. Women also had
diplomatic roles when they were sent on missions to influence women in other courts or
when they represented the court at numerous public events and festivals.
At court women lived in separate quarters called the harem or zenana including
the emperor and his wives, concubines, and children. These wives and concubines were
from various ethnic and religious cultures, resulting from his marrying to cement political
3 A person who has memorized the Qur’an
7. 7
alliances. Included in this group were the emperors widowed mother, his late father’s
other wives, his daughters, and sisters. This group were not allowed to marry to lessen
the number of male contenders to the throne. Both slaves and servants who served the
royal family lived here too. As with other Muslim Empires, there were professional
female dancers, peddlers, scribes, and artisans all there to administer and entertain the
approximately five thousand women. Each royal woman has her own apartment and
servants. One of the major tasks was to keep these women happy by providing
entertainment. Considerable wealth was kept here too including the imperial seal under
the protection of the emperor’s primary wife or mother. The seal was the harem’s most
valuable item. Its presence meant that every state document had to be taken to the
women’s quarters to be authenticated. A trained corps of female guards stood inside its
walls. Since Islam emphasized female literacy some of the women were well-educated,
knew how to read the Qur’an, read, write and recite poetry, paint, play musical
instruments, write beautiful calligraphy, and converse in a variety of languages.
Gulbadan Begam, Princess “Rose Body”, wrote in the 1580’s The History of Humayun an
account of the reign of her father the Emperor Babur and brother Humayun. This work
gives us one of the few glimpses we have of imperial women’s lives. Court women
became patrons of the arts, literature, and architecture. In their names there was a wide
variety of construction including ornamental mansions, tombs, bazaars, caravansaries,
bathhouses, water ways, and gardens. How were these women able to afford this? From
their own considerable wealth as royal mothers, wives, and daughters they received
generous stipends as well as periodic gifts from the emperor. Also money came from
8. 8
their share of looted treasuries of conquered rajas, and from the natural resources in
India of precious and semi precious gem stones. They also got gifts from people who
sought their influence at court such as traders, nobles, and family members. They also
received revenue from gifts of land grants. Muslim women were also allowed to keep
whatever they owned at the time of their marriage, and they could spend it as they
wanted to. Records show women used their own monies to hold festivals, buy luxuries
for themselves, and invest in both domestic and international trading ventures. Women
also gave contributions to benevolent groups, female orphans for their dowries, and to
pious women or saints. In India female saints were common. Most all the women in
court wore on their right thumb a ring with a tiny mirror to admire themselves.
Paintings of these times show activities of women outside of the harem. Women
were enjoying hunting on horseback, playing polo, traveling in palanquins (covered
litters) slung between camels or elephants. Emperors were always on the move, and they
usually brought whole courts with them, and even to some military campaigns. One
foreign writer wrote of the women of Akbar’s court: “The queens ride on female
elephants, hidden from view in gaily decorated howdahs. They are guarded and escorted
by five hundred old men of very dignified and venerable appearance. Great care is taken
to drive away to a great distance all who are found in the line of the Queen’s mark.
Also, women had more opportunities to go on pilgrimages to Mecca than men.
Women Sufi poets were part of a widespread emancipation movement in India
and West Asia that started more than a thousand years ago, and lasted until the
nineteenth century. Interestingly, these poets fought for women’s rights at a time when
9. 9
that concept was still unformulated. This movement saw the emergence of women saints
on an unprecedented scale, and was one of the most significant characteristics of the
medieval age in West Asia and South Asia. Mystic women poets subverted conventional
notions of gendered behavior, helping women to defy stereotypes, and break the chains of
tradition and orthodoxy, which sought to control their sexuality. In the spiritual sphere
of Sufism, physical distinction between male and female was often completely overlooked
and the two were fused and identified. Many of the saints believed that all creation,
being the product of the supreme creative power was feminine. Wedlock, and specifically
the husband, often appears in the works of Sufi women poets as an impediment to the
quest for truth, and is perceived not as a temptation but as an obstruction. This is
definitely not keeping with the specific Laws of Manu, where you are to treat your
husband as a “god”, as you were probably married to him in a prior life. One of the
famous Sufi women was Mira that legend has it that she remained a virgin even though
married, considering herself wedded to Krishna.