Early Civilizations: China & india

Early Civilizations:
India and China
The Indus and Huang He River Civilizations
From Pre-history to 1500’s

The sacred Ganges River will
develop its own civilization.

The earliest Indian civilization flourished for about 1,000 years, then vanished
without a trace. Archaeologists have only recently begun to uncover evidence of
these early people, whose civilization included the following characteristics:

They developed the written language of Sanskrit.
Although the inhuman sati/sutee system was
denounced among all circles by then, Mahabharata
stories told that a woman called Madri immolated
herself on her husband's funeral pyre in the sixth
century A.D. (CE.). According to Hindu customs and
traditions, widows had no right to remarry if their
husbands died. Those who refused to perform sati
were thrown into the fire by force as a punishment.

How Ganesh cursed the Moon
Now long ago Brahma was sitting with Shiva when a man called
Narada came along. And Narada offered a beautiful fruit to Shiva as a
sacrifice. It was a really wonderful fruit, that Narada had chosen specially for
Shiva. But Ganesh, Shiva's son, really loves fruit. He said he wanted it, and
then of course Ganesh's brother Kartikeya wanted the fruit too. They started
fighting and yelling, and Shiva asked the wise Brahma to decide who should
eat the fruit.
Brahma said Kartikeya should get the fruit because he was younger, and so Kartikeya ate the
sweet fruit. But Ganesh was still very angry. He tried to frighten Brahma by suddenly jumping out in front
of Brahma in his scariest form. And Brahma was really scared! But then Chandra, the Moon God, began
to laugh and laugh at silly Ganesh who was so greedy that he couldn't give the fruit to his father or his
little brother, and so babyish that he couldn't control his anger.
Now Ganesh turned all his anger on Chandra. "I'll get you, Chandra! I'll curse you - anyone who
looks at you will be cursed themselves and will do something wrong. So nobody will ever look at you
again!" Now that was very sad - imagine nobody ever looking at the beautiful moon! So the other gods
went to Ganesh and asked him to change his mind and forgive the moon for laughing at him. In the end,
Ganesh is really soft-hearted, so he did forgive Chandra and people could look at the moon again - except
for one night a year, on Ganesh's birthday, when Hindus believed it was unlucky to look at the moon.

Early Civilizations in India and China (2500 B.C.–256 B.C.)
Shiva

Saṃsāra is a Sanskrit word, the
literal meaning of which is "a
wandering through" –the
passage through many states
of existence involved in the
endless cycle of death and
rebirth. Also, it means getting
too caught up in the world’s
“paper chase.”
Enlightenment is achieved through meditation.
The ultimate goal is nirvana, union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth.

Followers
accompanied the
Buddha as he
preached across
Northern India.
Some Buddhists set up
monasteries and
convents that grew
into centers of
learning.
Missionaries and
traders spread
Buddhism across India
to many parts of Asia.

The Spread of Islam
This will be covered
more intensely in
another section later.

Muhammad
Became the
Prophet of
Islam
Muhammad said he heard the angel
Gabriel calling him to be the messenger
of God.
Muhammad devoted his life to
spreading Islam.
Muhammad made a journey from Mecca to
Medina, where he was welcomed by Muslim
converts. This was a turning point for Islam.
Muhammad returned to Mecca and worked
to unite Arabs under Islam.
1

The Teachings of Islam
Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula and became one of the world’s major religions.
Islam is
monotheistic,
based on the belief
in one God. ALLAH
Muslims believe that
the Q’ran/Koran
contains the sacred
word of God and is
the final authority on
all matters.
All Muslims accept five duties,
known as the Five Pillars of
Islam:
• faith
• daily prayer
• charity
• fasting during Ramadan
• hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca
1
There is no God but Allah and
Muhammad is His prophet.

4
The Delhi Sultanate
and Mughal Empire
• In the 1100s, Muslim invaders
entered northern India and
organized a sultanate, or land ruled
by a sultan. Rajah was the Indian
tribal chief/hereditary ruler name.
• Sultans introduced Muslim
traditions of government to India.
• Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs
migrated to India to serve as
soldiers or officials.
• Trade between India and the
Muslim world increased.
• During the Mongol raids, many
scholars fled from Baghdad to India,
bringing Persian and Greek learning.

Babur Founds an Empire In 1494
In 1494, an 11-year-old boy named Babur inherited
a kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It was only a tiny
kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But Babur built up an
army. In the years that followed, he swept down into India and laid the foundation for
the vast Mughal Empire.
Babur was a brilliant general. In 1526, for example, he led 12,000 troops to victory
against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan of Delhi. A year later, Babur also
defeated a massive army. After Babur’s death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost
most of the territory Babur had gained. Babur’s 13-year-old grandson took over the
throne after Humayun’s death.

4
Akbar the Great
During his long reign, Akbar strengthened Mughal India.
Akbar accomplished the following:
• Implemented policy of religious toleration
• Employed paid officials, instead of hereditary
officeholders
• Modernized the army
• Encouraged international trade
• Standardized weights and measures
• Introduced land reforms
Bollywood is re-making Indian history!

With Akbar’s death in 1605, the Mughal court changed to
deal with the changing
times. The next three emperors each left his mark on the
Mughal Empire.
Jahangir and Nur Jahan
Akbar’s son called himself Jahangir—“Grasper of the
World.” And he certainly did hold India in a powerful grasp.
It was not his hand in the iron glove, however. For most of
his reign, he left the affairs of state to his wife.
Jahangir’s wife was the Persian princess Nur Jahan. She
was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use
of power. As the real ruler of India, she installed her father
as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir’s
son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when
Khusrau rebelled against his father, Nur Jahan removed
him. She then shifted her favor to another son.
This rejection of Khusrau affected more than the political future of the empire. It was also the basis
of a long and bitter religious conflict. Jahangir tried to promote Islam in the Mughal state, but was
tolerant of other religions.

When Khusrau rebelled, he turned to
the Sikhs.
This was a nonviolent religious group
whose doctrines blended Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Sufism (Islamic
mysticism). Their leader, Guru Arjun,
sheltered Khusrau and defended him.
In response, the Mughal rulers had
Arjun arrested and tortured to death.
The Sikhs became the target of the
Mughals’ particular hatred.

Jahangir’s son and successor, Shah
Jahan, could not tolerate competition
and secured his throne by assassinating
all his possible rivals. He had a great
passion for two things: beautiful
buildings and his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Nur Jahan had arranged this marriage
between Jahangir’s son and her niece
for political reasons. Shah Jahan,
however, fell genuinely in love with his
Persian princess. In 1631, Mumtaz
Mahal died at age 39 while giving birth
to her 14th child.
Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal
Shah Jahan, who commissioned
the Taj Mahal -"Shah Jahan on a
globe" from the Smithsonian
Institution

As one enters through Taj Mahal Gate, the calligraphy reads "O Soul, thou art at
rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."
The tombs of the Shah
and his beloved wife.

The Taj Mahal ---- Hindi: ताज महल; Persian/Urdu:
تاج محل(
• The Taj Mahal ---- Hindi: ताज महल; Persian/Urdu: تاج محل is a mausoleum located in
Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz
Mahal.
• The Taj Mahal (also "the Taj") is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, a
style that combines elements from Persian, Ottoman, Indian, and Islamic architectural
styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was cited as
"the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the
world's heritage."
• While the white domed marble mausoleum is its most familiar component, the Taj Mahal
is actually an integrated complex of structures. Building began around 1632 and was
completed around 1653, and employed thousands of artisans and craftsmen. The
Persian architect, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal
designer of the Taj Mahal.

The base structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The base is essentially a cube with
chamferededges and is roughly 55 meters on each side (see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a
massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with a similar arch-shaped balcony.
On either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of
stacked pishtaqs is replicated on chamfered corner areas as well. The design is completely
symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing
the chamfered corners, frame the tomb. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of
Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; their actual graves are at a lower level.

Aurangzeb’s Reign
All was not well in the royal court either. When Shah Jahan became ill in
1657, his four sons scrambled for the throne. The third son, Aurangzeb
(AWR•uhng•zehb), moved first and most decisively. In a bitter civil war,
he executed his older brother, who was his most serious rival.
Then he arrested his father and put him in prison, where he died several
years later. After Shah Jahan’s death, a mirror was found in his room,
angled so that he could look out at the reflection of the Taj Mahal.

A master at military strategy and an aggressive empire
builder, Aurangzeb ruled from 1658 to 1707. He expanded
the Mughal holdings to their greatest size. However, the
power of the empire weakened during his reign.
This loss of power was due largely to Aurangzeb’s
oppression of the people. He rigidly enforced Islamic laws,
Sharia, outlawing drinking, gambling, and other activities
viewed as vices. He appointed censors to police his
subjects’ morals and make sure they prayed at the
appointed times. He also tried to erase all the gains
Hindus had made under Akbar. For example, he brought
back the hated tax on non-Muslims and dismissed Hindus
from high positions in his government. He banned the
construction of new temples and had Hindu monuments
destroyed. Not surprisingly, these actions outraged the
Hindus.

By the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, he had drained the empire of its
resources. Over 2 million people died in a famine while Aurangzeb was
away waging war. Most of his subjects felt little or no loyalty to him.
As the power of the central state weakened, the power of local lords
grew. After Aurangzeb’s death, his sons fought a war of succession. In
fact, three emperors reigned in the first 12 years after Aurangzeb died.
By the end of this period, the Mughal emperor was nothing but a
wealthy figurehead.
He ruled not a united empire but a patchwork of independent states.
As the Mughal Empire rose and fell, Western traders slowly built their own power in
the region.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. In fact, they arrived just
before Babur did.
Next came the Dutch, who in turn gave way to the French and the English. However,
the great Mughal emperors did not feel threatened by the Europeans. Shah Jahan
let the English build a fortified trading post at Madras.
In 1661, Aurangzeb casually handed them the port of Bombay.
Aurangzeb had no idea that he had given India’s next conquerors their first foothold.

Portugal will establish trade centers
in Goa and Calicut.
The British will play the rajahs off
one another, and will eventually
take control of all of India.

Ancient China
The Huang He River Valley Civilizations

Though his methods were brutal, Shi Huangdi ushered in
China’s classical age.

Shang Dynasty
King • Head of political & religious life
• Advisors to King
• Government & religious officials
• Land Lords
Nobles
• From the far regions
Warriors
leaders
• Pottery
• Clothes
• Tools
• weapons
Artisans
•Worked long hours
• Little pay
•Over taxed
Farmers
• Lowest rank
• Important labor
resource
Slaves

• Hua Mulan is a heroine who joined an all-male army,
described in a famous Chinese poem known as the Ballad of
Mulan. The poem was first written in the Musical Records of
Old and New from the 6th century, the century before the
founding of the Tang Dynasty; the original work no longer exists,
and the original text of this poem comes from another work known as
the Music Bureau Collection, an anthology of lyrics, songs, and poems,
compiled by Guo Maoqian during the 12th century. The author
explicitly mentions the Musical Records of Old and New as his source
for the poem. Whether she was a historical person or whether the
poem was an allegory has been debated for centuries—it is unknown
whether the story has any factual basis.
• The time setting of the story is uncertain. The earliest accounts of the
legend state that she lived during the Northern Wei dynasty (386–
534) but there has been no proof. However another version reports
that Mulan was requested as a concubine by Emperor Yang of Sui
China (reigned 604–617).
• Evidence from the extant poem suggests the earlier interpretation.

The “Dragon Bones” Story
Fu Hao was married to King Wu Ding. He was a
great warrior king, but he made peace with the
surrounding tribes by marrying one woman from
each tribe and he ended up with 60 wives. She
was smart enough to earn his favor by working in
his government and he trusted her to perform
special rituals and offer sacrifices, which was very
unusual for a woman at that time, anywhere in
the world.
It was also very unusual for a woman be so
powerful and to lead military campaigns. She was
in charge of up to 13,000 soldiers and was the
boss of two generals Zhi and Hou Gao. The Shang
had been fighting with the Tu-Fang for ages until
Fu Hao defeated them once and for all. Then she
won major battles against the Yi, Qiang and Ba
tribes, and led the earliest recorded large-scale
ambush in Chinese history.

King Ding must have been very proud of her because he
built a magnificent tomb for her after she died. Her
battle-axes and other weapons were buried with her,
along with sacrificial bronze vessels and tortoise shells
which are marked prepared by Fu Hao. This shows that
she was a high priestess and could cast oracles (which
means that they thought she could tell the future).
Fu Hao died about 1200 BC, but her name survives
because the Chinese word 'Hao' means 'good'.

Shang Dynasty
Government
Religion
Society
Achievements
Kings ruled, nobles
advised
King at center of religion,
priests used oracle bones to
make predictions
Royal family/nobles at highest
level. Artisans at middle level,
farmers, slaves at lower levels
Writing system, use of bronze,
calendar, war chariots, and
bows

The Zhou Dynasty
• The longest lasting Dynasty in Chinese
history- 900 years
• Nomadic farmers settled near the Shang
Dynasty’s kingdom
• They were skilled fighters & farmers
• They used iron weapons (stronger than
the Shang’s bronze weapons)

Mandate of Heaven
After the Zhou overtook the Shang Dynasty-they
had to get the people to accept them as
the new kings.
They claimed that heaven granted the emperors
the right to rule based on their ability to govern
well and fairly.
The Son of Heaven gives the right to a just ruler
The overthrow of a ruler meant he had lost the
Mandate of Heaven because he was no longer
worthy of it.

Zhou Government
Structure
King gives land to the Lords
Lords preform military service
Lords protect the Peasants
Peasants work the farmland &
serve the Nobles

Zhou Accomplishments
• Huge public works, new dikes, dams and
canals, better agriculture, transportation, and
communication
• Civilization grew, more people than anywhere
else

“Kung Fu-Tzu”or Confucius
• Believed society should be like a family with
everyone having roles & responsibilities
• Wanted a return to ethics- moral
values of the ancients
• Lords ignored Confucius
• Confucius was a traveling teacher
with great respect, sharing his ideas
with all
• After Confucius’ death—his students
wrote down his proverbs or Analects

Confucianism
• Kung Fu-Tzu lived 551-479 BC
• It is not a religion, but an ethical code of morals for
individuals, society, and government
• Primary goals: order, harmony, peace and happiness on earth
• Achieved through education, self-effort, and self-reflection

Confucianism Impact
• Initially spread through the Analects after his
death by his students
• Later, his students too positions within the
government
• Ideals formed the basis fro the civil service exam
in China
• Became foundation of Chinese
education
• Teachings spread to Korea and
Japan Confucius &
Confucianism

Origins Founder Principles Diffusion
China during the Zhou
Dynasty
After the end of
feudalism crime was
rampant and
Confucius spoke of
returning to the moral
standards of the
ancients
Kung Fu-Tzu
(Confucius) 551-479
BC
Ethical code dealing
with moral character
of individuals, society,
and government
Goals: order,
harmony, peace, and
happiness on earth
Achieved through
education, self-effort,
and self-achievement
Standard of conduct-
Five Relationships
stressing Filial Piety
Students/ followers
obtained government
jobs
Analects of his
teachings
Basis for Chinese Civil
Servant Exam
Foundation for
Chinese education
Teachings spread
through Korea &
Japan

Origins Founder Principles Diffusion
Chinese philosophies
merged into one
basic teaching
Grew as a reaction to
the spread of
Confucianism and
Buddhism, so it took
longer to “catch on”
Lao- Tse “The Way” or “The Path”
Focus on achieving
balance and harmony
within nature
“effortless doing”- man’s
actions are at one with
nature
Symbol- Yin/Yang
The Three Jewels:
compassion, moderation,
& harmony
Tao Te Ching text
Spread to areas
immediately near
China
Incorporated into
the teachings &
beliefs of several
philosophies and
religions-most
notable:
Buddhism and
Shintoism

Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff
• Key concept: “Effortless
doing” occurs when
man’s efforts & actions
are in harmony with the
universe & not in
conflict with the natural
order
• Harmony with nature

Reflects harmony and
balance
Symbol emphasizes
the Three Jewels:
compassion
moderation
humility

3
The Dynastic Cycle in China
The dynastic cycle refers to the rise and fall of dynasties.

Buddhism became popular
among the Chinese,
especially in times of crisis.
It was appealing because
It promised an escape
from suffering, offered
hope of eternal happiness.
presented Buddha as a
compassionate, merciful
god. taught that anyone
could gain salvation
through prayer, good
works, and devotion.

No, not him!
Han emperors instituted the civil service exam
In order to find the most qualified officials.
They made Confucianism the official belief
of the state.

Explorations will stop. Confucian scholars had little interest in overseas
ventures. To them, Chinese civilization was superior to all others.
The Chinese wanted to preserve ancient traditions, which they saw as the
source of stability. Fleets of seagoing ships were costly and did not produce
any profits. Even the knowledge of the outside world was a danger.

Tikki Tikki Tembo is set in ancient China and invents an ancient Chinese custom whereby
parents honor their first-born sons with long, elaborate names that everyone is obliged
to say completely – no nicknames, no shortening of any kind – while second-born sons
are typically given short, unimportant names. A boy named Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa
Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo ("The Most Wonderful Thing in the Whole Wide
World") and his little brother Chang ("Little or Nothing") are playing near a well that
their mother has warned them to avoid. Chang falls in the well and his older brother
runs to their mother and tells her Chang has fallen down the well. Their mother tells him
to get the Old Man with the Ladder. He goes and tells the old man. Chang is rescued and
then recovers quickly. Some time later, the boys are again playing near the well. This
time, the older brother falls in. Chang runs to their mother and tries to tell her that
"Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo has fallen into the
well." At first she cannot hear him so he says it again. However, because Chang is out of
breath from running he sputters and then mispronounces the name. His mother insists
that he repeat the name—but with respect. He tries repeatedly until finally his mother
tells Chang to get the Old Man with the Ladder. Chang goes to the Old Man with the
Ladder. Initially, the old man does not respond because he is asleep. Further, when
Chang tries to wake him up, the Old Man with the Ladder—annoyed—tries to fall back
asleep. After Chang breathlessly repeats his brother's predicament the Old Man goes
with Chang to save his brother from the well. They get Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari
Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo from the well, but because of the long time he was in
the well, he requires days to recover. The end of the story says that this is why the
Chinese have short names.

Genghis Khan
• Genghis Khan (emperor) of
the Mongol Empire the largest
contiguous empire in history.
• He came to power by uniting
many of the nomadic tribes of
northeast Asia. After founding
the Mongol Empire and being
proclaimed "Genghis Khan",
he started the Mongol
invasions and raids of the Kara-
Khitan Khanate, Caucasus,
Khwarezmid Empire, Western
Xia and Jin dynasties. During
his life, the Mongol Empire
eventually occupied a
substantial portion of Central
Asia and China.

In the 1200s, Genghis Khan united Mongol tribes and conquered a vast empire
that stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.
Genghis Khan imposed strict military discipline and demanded absolute loyalty.
His highly trained armies contained some of the most skilled horsemen in the
world.
In their conquest of China, the Mongol armies faced the problem of attacking
walled cities. Mongol and Chinese armies used missile weapons against each
other.
It took 150 years for the Mongols to complete their conquest of China.
Once a conquest was complete, the Mongols were not oppressive rulers. They
often allowed conquered peoples to live much as they had — as long as they
paid tribute to the Mongols.
The heirs of Genghis Khan established peace and order within their domain.
Historians today refer to this period as the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace.

Early Ming rulers sought to reassert Chinese greatness after years
of foreign rule. To accomplish this, they did the following:
• Restored the civil service system and made the exams more rigorous than ever
• Revived Confucian learning
• Repaired the canal system that linked regions and made trade easier
• Made Chinese cities home to many industries, including porcelain, paper, and
tools
• Developed new technologies, which increased output in manufacturing
• Supported a revival of arts and literature
Only Mongols could serve in the military or hold the highest government jobs.
Chinese officials were allowed to rule in the provinces.
The Chinese despised their foreign conquerors.
A mix of Chinese and foreign customs developed.
Foreigners were welcomed into China and a number of Chinese products, such as
gunpowder and porcelain, were introduced in Europe.

Irrigation
Public works—roads, canals, Etc.
Distribution system

Textiles—silk, cotton
Porcelain—china
Tea, silver, art, spices, furniture

Women—wealthy—stylized,
but all women were treated as inferiors

Many workers died in
the building of the
Wall; they are buried
within it as filler.

Over 5500 miles, most of which were
added/maintained during Ming

大清
Great Qing
In 1644, the Mings set up a new
dynasty called the Qing (meaning pure).
The Manchus extended their empire
including Manchuria, Mongolia,
Xinjiang, and Tibet.
Taiwan was added in 1683. It ruled a
huge empire for almost 300 years.
• Silk production
• The silkworms are born in spring,
are fed on mulberry leaves and
make the floss thread, forming a
nice cocoon, of which an elegant
butterfly is born. The butterflies
make eggs, of which worms are
born again. It is the history of the
cycle of the nature and the
production of silk.
• Silk worms

CHINESE FOOT BINDING
• At first only the rich people of China practiced foot
binding. This was because women with bound feet
could not walk properly and needed a lot of care.
Bound feet had to be washed daily and the toenails
had to be cut every day so that they wouldn't grow too
long and cut the foot. Sometimes the cloth would be
wrapped too tightly and women would get gangrene or
blood poisoning. Poor people didn't bind their
daughters feet at first because they couldn't afford to
spend a lot of time caring for a women who sat around
not working. Eventually, the practice spread to the poor
people who wanted their daughters to marry rich
husbands. If a poor girl did not marry a rich husband,
she had to try to work in the fields walking on her
deformed feet. The Manchus tried to end the foot-binding—
but that did not end until 1900s.
•
• Foot binding is a custom that started in China during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907). Back
then small feet were considered beautiful so young girls were forced to bind their feet to
stop them from growing.
Foot binding involved wrapping strips of cloth around the feet of baby girls. This binding
process caused a lot of pain and even stopped them from walking correctly. Feet would
become so deformed they looked like hooks and were called lotus hooks. Special small
slippers were made to fit the feet. The shoes would get smaller as the feet became more
deformed.

Ninja 忍者
A ninja or shinobi (忍者) was a covert agent or
mercenary of feudal Japan specializing in
unorthodox arts of war. The functions of the ninja
included espionage, sabotage, infiltration,
assassination, as well as open combat in certain
situations. The underhanded tactics of the ninja were
contrasted with the samurai, who were careful not to
tarnish their reputable image.
In his Buke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa
Hokinoichi writes of the ninja:
“They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge
the situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their
way into the midst of the enemy to discover gaps,
and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and
carried out assassinations, arriving in secret.”

A ninja or shinobi (忍者?) was a covert agent or mercenary of feudal
Japan specializing in unorthodox arts of war. The functions of the ninja
included espionage, sabotage, infiltration, assassination, as well as open
combat in certain situations. The underhanded tactics of the ninja were
contrasted with the samurai, who were careful not to tarnish their reputable
image.
In his Buke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa Hokinoichi writes of
the ninja: “ They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge the
situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their way into the midst of the
enemy to discover gaps, and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and
carried out assassinations, arriving in secret. ” The origin of the ninja is
obscure and difficult to determine, but can be surmised to be around the
14th century. Few written records exist to detail the activities of the ninja.
The word shinobi did not exist to describe a ninja-like agent until the 15th
century, and it is unlikely that spies and mercenaries prior to this time were
seen as a specialized group. In the unrest of the Sengoku period (15th -
17th centuries), mercenaries and spies for hire arose out of the Iga and
Kōga regions of Japan, and it is from these clans that much of later
knowledge regarding the ninja is inferred. Following the unification of
Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate, the ninja descended again into
obscurity. However, in the 17th and 18th centuries, manuals such as the
Bansenshukai (1676) — often centered around Chinese military
philosophy— appeared in significant numbers. These writings revealed an
assortment of philosophies, religious beliefs, their application in warfare,
as well as the espionage techniques that form the basis of the ninja's art.
The word ninjutsu would later come to describe a wide variety of practices
related to the ninja.
Ninja
忍者

• The mysterious nature of the ninja has long captured
popular imagination in Japan, and later the rest of the
world. Ninjas figure prominently in folklore and
legend, and as a result it is often difficult to separate
historical fact from myth. Some legendary abilities
include invisibility, walking on water, and control over
natural elements. The ninja is also prevalent in
popular culture appearing in many forms of
entertainment media. Later manuals regarding
espionage are often grounded in Chinese military
strategy, quoting works such as The Art of War (Sunzi
Bingfa), by Sun Tzu.

حشاشون جماعة الحشاشين Assassin
The term 'Assassin' derives from the Arabic word Hashshashin
literally "takers of hashish", more commonly called The Order of
the Assassins. Their actual name is Nizari. They were active in
the costal mountains of the Levant, then moved to Alamut by the
Caspian Sea from the eighth to the fourteenth centuries. This
group killed members of the Abbasid and Seljuq élite for
political and religious reasons, but mostly targeted the Sunni
Muslims.
It is commonly believed that assassins were under the influence
of hashish and opium during their killings or during their
indoctrination, and that assassin derives from hasishin. There is
continued debate within the historical community whether these
claims have any merit, as direct evidence from any
contemporary source, Nizari or otherwise, is non-existent. Marco
Polo and subsequent European visitors to the area received from
rivals of the Nizarai, what were to these opponents, derogatory
names for the Nizarai Ismaili, and significantly embroidered stories
about them. Polo, Henry II, Count of Champagne, William Marsden,
an envoy of Frederick Barbarossa, William, Archbishop of Tyre and
others following, popularized the names and stories in Europe,
oblivious to their origin in factional propaganda.

As early as Han times, China extended its influence to Korea. Although Koreans
absorbed many Chinese traditions, Korea was able to preserve its independence
and maintain a separate and distinct culture.
Koreans adapted and modified Chinese ideas.
Examples:
Koreans used the Chinese civil service examination, but adapted it to fit their
own system of inherited ranks.
Koreans learned to make porcelain from China, but then perfected techniques of
making celadon—a porcelain with an unusual blue-green glaze.
In 1392, the Koreans overthrew their Mongol conquerors and set up the Choson
dynasty. Choson rulers made important contributions to Korean culture. They reduced
Buddhist influence and set up a government based upon Confucian principles. Over
time, Confucianism greatly influenced Korean life.
They developed hangul to replace the complex Chinese writing system. The use of
hangul led to an extremely high literacy rate, or percentage of people who can read and
write.

The Japanese kept some Chinese ways but discarded or
modified others. This process is known as selective
borrowing.
Example: Japan never accepted the Chinese civil service exam
to choose officials based on merit. Instead, they maintained
their tradition of inherited status through family position.

Japan is located on an archipelago, or chain of
islands, about 100 miles off the Asian mainland.
Because four-fifths of Japan is mountainous,
most people settled in narrow river valleys and
along coastal plains.
The surrounding seas have both protected and
isolated Japan. Japan was close enough to the
mainland to learn from Korea and China, but too
far away for the Chinese to conquer.
The seas also served as trade routes for Japan.

Feudalism—allegiance to one’s overlord

Bushido= Chivalry Samauri- Knight

Important literature came out of Japan. The Pillow Book was a series
of anecdotes and observations about court life. The Tale of Genji was
the world’s first full-length novel. Both were written by women.
Lady Murasaki Shikibu contributed much to the Japanese script known as kana,
while men wrote with Chinese characters, kanji.

Seppuku:
Ritual Suicide
Kaishaku – his
“seconds”
It is honorable to die
in this way.
Ritual disembowelment saves face/honor.

A caterpillar,
this deep in fall--
still not a butterfly.
Matsuo Basho
An old pond
A frog jumps in -
Splash!
Matsuo Basho

Early Civilizations: China & india

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