The document discusses the nature of science. It describes science as understandable, following consistent basic rules everywhere, and producing durable yet changing knowledge. Scientific inquiry uses evidence and facts to develop hypotheses and theories, which are continually tested through experimentation and observation. Well-established scientific theories represent our best current explanations but are still subject to revision. The scientific process aims to identify and avoid bias while building knowledge through self-correction.
Chapter 1 section 1
1. What is science?
1.1. Identify how science is a part of your everyday life.
1.2. Describe what skills and tools are used in science.
A teacher should have love for his profession. He should be seriously and sincerely committed to his duties and work. As such be must be on the path of excellence both for his own personal achievements and that of his pupils.
Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of learning, and each phase begins with the letter "E": Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5 E's allows students and teachers to experience common activities, to use and build on prior knowledge and experience, to construct meaning, and to continually assess their understanding of a concept.
Chapter 1 section 1
1. What is science?
1.1. Identify how science is a part of your everyday life.
1.2. Describe what skills and tools are used in science.
A teacher should have love for his profession. He should be seriously and sincerely committed to his duties and work. As such be must be on the path of excellence both for his own personal achievements and that of his pupils.
Each of the 5 E's describes a phase of learning, and each phase begins with the letter "E": Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5 E's allows students and teachers to experience common activities, to use and build on prior knowledge and experience, to construct meaning, and to continually assess their understanding of a concept.
This is a lecture I wrote to introduce my students to the concept of Evidence Based medicine. Goes hand in hand with many handouts, such as the parachute study.
Special thanks to Dr. Brian Bledsoes lecture on EBM, from wich I pirated liberally.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. WHAT IS THE NATURE OF SCIENCE?
• Please read the complete article
which is posted at my website for you
• There is also a PPT summary posted
at my website for you
• Please use them for your exam 1
review
3. THIS IS THETHIS IS THE
SCIENTIFIC WORLD VIEWSCIENTIFIC WORLD VIEW
1.1. The Universe Is Understandable.The Universe Is Understandable.
2.2. The Universe Is a Vast Single System InThe Universe Is a Vast Single System In
Which the Basic Rules Are EverywhereWhich the Basic Rules Are Everywhere
the Same.the Same.
3.3. Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change.Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change.
4.4. Scientific Knowledge Is Durable.Scientific Knowledge Is Durable.
5.5. Science Cannot Provide CompleteScience Cannot Provide Complete
Answers to All Questions.Answers to All Questions.
4. WHAT IS THE NATURE OF
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY?
• Certain features of science make it
distinctive as a means of
understanding the world/universe
• Those features are especially
characteristic of the work of
professional scientists, but anyone
can use them to think scientifically
about many aspects of everyday life
5. Science Demands Evidence
• The validity of scientific claims is
settled by referring to observations of
phenomena
• Therefore, scientists concentrate on
getting accurate data
6. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Observe and describe a phenomenon or group of
phenomena
2. Formulate hypotheses to explain the phenomena;
hypotheses often take the form of a proposed causal
mechanism or mathematical relationship
3. Use the hypotheses to predict the existence or
actions of other phenomena, or to predict
quantitatively the results of new observations
4. Perform additional data collection or repeat
experimental tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters using properly performed
techniques or experiments
7. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• Observations/Data Hypotheses Hypothesis➔ ➔
Testing Models Laws Theories➔ ➔ ➔
• At some point in time, each stage must be reported to
the larger scientific community by presentations or
publications
8. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• The scientific method does not allow any
hypothesis to be proven true
• Hypotheses can be disproven, in which case
those hypothesis are rejected as false
• A hypothesis which withstands a test designed
to falsify it establishes a level of probability that
the hypothesis accurately explains data and
can be used for further predictions, subject to
further tests
10. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
• A Scientific Theory is an explanation of a set or
system of related observations or events based
upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple
times by detached groups of unbiased
researchers
• (One scientist cannot create a theory; s/he can only
create hypotheses)
11. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
• As a result of our confidence in the
Scientific method, both scientific laws and
broader scientific theories are accepted to
be “true” (accurate) by the scientific
community as a whole
• A scientific law or a scientific theory is
used to make predictions of events or
relationships among data sets
12. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
• The biggest difference between a law and a
theory is that a theory is much more complex
and dynamic
• A law governs a single action or situation,
whereas a theory explains an entire group of
related phenomena (Mendel’s Laws versus
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection)
• [Note: Evolution is a Fact; Darwin’s Theory is
the scientifically accepted explanation for the
fact(s) and mechanisms of evolution.]
13. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
• Genuine scientific theories must be falsifiable
by applying the scientific method (data
collection and hypothesis testing)
• If one cannot imagine a specific investigation or
experiment, based on predictions from the
theory, leading to results which can further
verify or refute the predictions, then the theory,
as an explanation, is not scientific
14. SCIENTIFIC LAWS AND THEORIES
• When the scientific community accepts a Law
or Theory, it represents the best understanding
of the explanations for the properties of a given
system at that point in time
• A Scientific Theory represents our best
understanding of the “truth” about some aspect
of the universe, even though it is not proven as
absolute and is still understood to be subject to
future revision, or even to rejection
15. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• The Experimental Method is usually considered
the most scientific of all methods, the “method
of choice”
• The main problem with all other non-
experimental methods is investigators have
less control over the situation and its
components
• The Experimental Method exerts the most
16. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• An experiment is a study of cause and effect
• It differs from non-experimental methods in that
it involves the deliberate manipulation of one
variable, while trying to keep all other variables
constant
• Experiments must be properly designed and
include controls
17.
18. HYPOTHESIS GENERATION
• The use of logic and the close examination of
evidence are necessary but not usually
sufficient for the advancement of science
• Scientific concepts do not emerge automatically
from data or from any amount of analysis alone
• Inventing hypotheses or theories to imagine
how the world works and then figuring out how
they can be put to the test of reality is a
creative thought process
19. SCIENCE EXPLAINS AND PREDICTS
• Scientists try to make sense of observations by
constructing explanations for observations that
are consistent with currently accepted scientific
principles
• Such explanations—theories—may be either
sweeping or restricted, but they must be
logically sound and incorporate a significant
body of scientifically valid observations
• The credibility of scientific theories often comes
from their ability to show relationships among
phenomena that previously seemed unrelated
20. SCIENCE EXPLAINS AND PREDICTS
• It is not enough for scientific theories
to explain the observations that are
already known
• Theories should also explain
additional observations that were not
used in formulating the theories in the
first place; that is, theories should
have predictive power
21. SCIENTISTS TRY TO
IDENTIFY AND TO AVOID BIAS
• When faced with a claim that something is true,
scientists respond by asking what evidence
supports it
• But scientific evidence can be biased in how
the data are interpreted, recorded or reported,
or even in the choice of what data are
considered in the first place
• A scientist’s nationality, culture, gender, ethnic
origin, age, political convictions, etc., may
incline him or her to look for or emphasize one
kind of evidence or interpretation over another
22. SCIENCE IS NOT AUTHORITARIAN
• In science, it is
appropriate to turn to
knowledgeable sources of
information and opinion,
usually specialists in
relevant disciplines
• But respected authorities
have been wrong many
times in the history of
science
Aristotle
23. SCIENCE IS SELF CORRECTING
AND PROGRESSIVE
• In the short run, new ideas that do not agree
well with mainstream ideas may encounter
vigorous criticism, and scientists investigating
such ideas may have difficulty obtaining
support for their research
• Challenges to new ideas are the legitimate
business of science in building valid knowledge
24. SCIENCE IS SELF CORRECTING
AND PROGRESSIVE
• SF Author Sir Arthur C.
Clarke’s First Law:
“When a distinguished
but elderly scientist
states that something
is possible, he is
almost certainly right.
When he states that
something is
impossible, he is very
25. SCIENCE AS A WAY OF KNOWING
1. The Universe Is Understandable
2. The Universe Is a Vast Single System In Which the Basic
Rules Are Everywhere the Same
3. Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change
4. Scientific Knowledge Is Durable
5. Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions
Scientific ideas are developed by particular ways of
observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating
Observations/Data Hypotheses Hypothesis➔ ➔
Testing Models Laws Theories➔ ➔ ➔
26. Principles and Processes
of Evolution
• For the rest of the semester, we will
examine the fact(s) of Evolution and
the evidence that supports
Darwin’s/Biology’s Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection
• We will also expose “Intelligent
Design” as an unsatisfactory
alternative explanation of causation