This document discusses pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions. It provides information on pH scales, how pH is determined through electrometric and colorimetric methods, and applications of buffers. Buffer solutions are defined as those that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. The mechanisms and properties of buffer action are explained. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relating the pH of a buffer solution to the ratio of concentrations of its weak acid and salt is derived. Factors affecting buffer capacity are also outlined.
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
This document discusses pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions. It begins by defining pH as a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water using Sorensen's pH scale. It then describes two methods for determining pH: the calorimetric method which compares a solution's color to standard buffers and indicators, and the electrometric method which uses a pH meter. The document also discusses buffers and their importance in biological and pharmaceutical systems like blood, tears, and injections to maintain optimal pH levels. Factors that can influence a buffer's pH like temperature, dilution, and ionic strength are also covered.
This document provides information on complexation and protein binding. It defines complexation as the association between two or more molecules to form a non-bonded entity through interactions like coordination bonds, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, etc. It classifies complexes into metal complexes, organic molecular complexes, and inclusion complexes. It also discusses ligand types, methods of analyzing complexes, and applications of complexation. The document then defines protein binding and discusses factors that affect binding like drug and protein properties, drug interactions, and patient factors. It explains kinetics of protein binding and methods to determine binding constants and sites like direct plots, Scatchard plots, and others.
This document discusses the solubility of drugs and defines key terms like solute, solvent, and solution. It explains that solubility is the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a homogeneous mixture. The mechanism of solute-solvent interactions is discussed, noting that "like dissolves like" and factors like temperature, pressure, and pH influence solubility. Solubility expressions are provided to classify solubility from very soluble to practically insoluble. The document also discusses solubility of gases, liquids, ideal and non-ideal solutions, azeotropes, and Nerst's distribution law.
Solubility of Drugs (PHYSICAL PHARMACEUTICS-I)Rakesh Mishra
Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions,solubility parameters, factors influencing
solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems, Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible
liquids(Phase equilibria, Phase rule, One , two and three component systems, ternary phase
diagram, Critical solution temperature and applications). Distribution law, its limitations and
applications
This document discusses pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions. It provides information on pH scales, how pH is determined through electrometric and colorimetric methods, and applications of buffers. Buffer solutions are defined as those that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. The mechanisms and properties of buffer action are explained. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relating the pH of a buffer solution to the ratio of concentrations of its weak acid and salt is derived. Factors affecting buffer capacity are also outlined.
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
This document discusses pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions. It begins by defining pH as a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in water using Sorensen's pH scale. It then describes two methods for determining pH: the calorimetric method which compares a solution's color to standard buffers and indicators, and the electrometric method which uses a pH meter. The document also discusses buffers and their importance in biological and pharmaceutical systems like blood, tears, and injections to maintain optimal pH levels. Factors that can influence a buffer's pH like temperature, dilution, and ionic strength are also covered.
This document provides information on complexation and protein binding. It defines complexation as the association between two or more molecules to form a non-bonded entity through interactions like coordination bonds, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, etc. It classifies complexes into metal complexes, organic molecular complexes, and inclusion complexes. It also discusses ligand types, methods of analyzing complexes, and applications of complexation. The document then defines protein binding and discusses factors that affect binding like drug and protein properties, drug interactions, and patient factors. It explains kinetics of protein binding and methods to determine binding constants and sites like direct plots, Scatchard plots, and others.
This document discusses the solubility of drugs and defines key terms like solute, solvent, and solution. It explains that solubility is the concentration of a substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a homogeneous mixture. The mechanism of solute-solvent interactions is discussed, noting that "like dissolves like" and factors like temperature, pressure, and pH influence solubility. Solubility expressions are provided to classify solubility from very soluble to practically insoluble. The document also discusses solubility of gases, liquids, ideal and non-ideal solutions, azeotropes, and Nerst's distribution law.
Solubility of Drugs (PHYSICAL PHARMACEUTICS-I)Rakesh Mishra
Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions,solubility parameters, factors influencing
solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems, Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible
liquids(Phase equilibria, Phase rule, One , two and three component systems, ternary phase
diagram, Critical solution temperature and applications). Distribution law, its limitations and
applications
This document discusses fats and oils, including their reactions, properties, and analytical constants. It describes the processes of hydrolysis, hydrogenation, and rancidity. It also defines several analytical constants used to characterize fats and oils, such as acid number, saponification number, iodine number, ester number, Reichert-Meissl number, and acetyl number. The constants are used to identify fat composition and purity and to detect adulteration.
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-2) (Latent Heat, Vapour pressu...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Latent Heat, Vapour pressure, Factor affecting vapour pressure, Surface area, Types of molecule, Temperature and Intermolecular forces, Sublimation Critical point
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Physical pharmacy i third semester (unit-i) solubility of drugMs. Pooja Bhandare
Physical pharmaceutics is the study of physicochemical properties of drug molecules in designing dosage forms. This document discusses the definitions and concepts related to solubility of drugs. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, saturated solution, and explains how solubility is expressed quantitatively and qualitatively. The mechanisms of solute-solvent interactions are discussed based on the nature of solvents being polar, non-polar or semi-polar. Specific examples are provided to illustrate solubility principles for different classes of solvents.
Buffers in pharmaceutical and biological systemBASIT MANZOOR
1. The document discusses buffers in pharmaceutical and biological systems. It describes various buffer systems that function in the human body to maintain blood pH, including bicarbonate-carbonic acid, phosphate, and protein buffers.
2. The bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system regulates blood pH through reactions involving sodium bicarbonate, carbonic acid, and water. The phosphate buffer system involves the conversion between sodium dihydrogen phosphate and sodium monohydrogen phosphate through reactions with strong acids and bases.
3. Hemoglobin and proteins also act as buffers, with hemoglobin buffering pH changes during the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and proteins buffering pH in blood plasma and within
Complexation and Protein Binding [Part-2](Method of analysis, Complexation a...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses various methods for analyzing complexes, including continuous variation (Job's) method, distribution method, solubility method, pH titration method, and spectroscopy. The continuous variation method analyzes changes in physical properties like dielectric constant when complexes form to determine stoichiometric ratios. The distribution method examines how the distribution of a solute between immiscible liquids changes with complexation to estimate stability constants. The solubility method observes whether solubility increases or decreases with the addition of a complexing agent. pH titration is reliable for complexes that affect pH upon formation. Spectroscopy techniques like UV and NMR are also used to determine rate constants and equilibrium constants.
The document discusses complexation, which is the combination of individual groups or molecules to form larger molecules or ions. Complexes are formed through coordination bonds between a central metal atom or ion and surrounding ligands. Ligands can be monodentate, bidentate, or polydentate. Complexation has applications in drug delivery through properties like enhanced solubility and stability. Metal ion complexes and organic molecular complexes are discussed as examples. Protein binding of drugs is another type of complexation that affects drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion by binding drugs and rendering them pharmacologically inactive. Factors influencing protein binding include drug properties, protein properties, and patient factors.
Physical Pharmaceutics-IUnit-IIISurface and Interfacial tension (Part-1)(Li...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses liquid interfaces and surface and interfacial tension. It defines a liquid interface as the boundary between phases in contact, with surface referring specifically to the boundary between a liquid and gas. Surface tension is the force per unit length acting at right angles to the liquid surface and arises from cohesive intermolecular forces being imbalanced at the surface. Molecules in the bulk liquid experience equal attractive forces from all sides, while surface molecules only experience inward attraction. This imbalance causes the surface to contract and results in surface tension. Interfacial tension similarly describes the imbalance of forces at the boundary between immiscible liquids. Some examples of liquid surface tensions are provided.
Complexation and Protein Binding [Part-1](Introduction and Classification an...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Complexation: Classification of complexation:
Metal ion or co-ordination complexes :
Inorganic type Organic molecular complexes :
Quinhydrone type
Picric acid type
Caffeine and other drug complexes
Polymer type
Inclusion or occlusion compound
Channel lattice type
Layer type
Monomolecular type
Macromolecular type
Chelates
Olefin type
Aromatic type
Pi (п) complexes
Sigma (б) complexes
Sandwich complexes
1. Complex compounds are molecules where some bonds cannot be described by classical theories of valency and involve anomalous bonds.
2. Complexes form through interactions like coordination bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals forces between different chemical species.
3. Complexation can alter properties like solubility, conductivity, and chemical reactivity and is used in applications like increasing drug solubility, purification of water, drug analysis, and as anticoagulants.
This document discusses various physicochemical properties of drug molecules that are important for product development, including refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, and dissociation constant. It provides definitions and measurement techniques for each property, as well as their applications in areas like product formulation, storage conditions, identification of substances, and understanding acid-base equilibria. Measurement of these properties allows for characterization of drug molecules and optimization of drug products.
Solubility of liquids in liquids, The term miscibility refers to the mutual solubility of the component of liquid - liquid system, Raoult’s Law, Raoult’s law may be mathematically expressed as: Ideal solution, Real solution
4th (30.10.2014) on eutectic mixture by Diptarco SinghaDiptarco Singha
this ppt is very simple and has immence importance in physical pharmacy. it has been prepared based on the syllabus of WBUT & consists of informations of elimentary label...
Surface and Interfacial tension [Part-5](HLB System, Solubilization )Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses the HLB (hydrophilic lipophilic balance) system for classifying surfactants. It explains that HLB values indicate whether a surfactant is more hydrophilic or lipophilic. Methods for estimating a surfactant's HLB value involve assigning group numbers to different parts of the molecule. Required HLB values can predict whether a surfactant will form a stable oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion with a given oil. However, the HLB system has limitations and does not consider surfactant concentration which also impacts emulsion stability.
This document discusses pH buffers and isotonic solutions. It defines pH as a measure of acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution, outlines methods of pH measurement including electrometric, pH paper, and colorimetric methods, and discusses the importance and applications of buffers in biological and pharmaceutical systems like blood and tears which require precise pH regulation. It also defines isotonic solutions as those that do not cause cell contraction or swelling when injected and discusses related concepts like osmotic pressure, osmolality, and osmolarity.
pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions are important concepts in chemistry, biology, and related scientific fields. They play significant roles in understanding and controlling the behavior of solutions, maintaining physiological balance, and conducting various experiments and processes.
This document discusses fats and oils, including their reactions, properties, and analytical constants. It describes the processes of hydrolysis, hydrogenation, and rancidity. It also defines several analytical constants used to characterize fats and oils, such as acid number, saponification number, iodine number, ester number, Reichert-Meissl number, and acetyl number. The constants are used to identify fat composition and purity and to detect adulteration.
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-2) (Latent Heat, Vapour pressu...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Latent Heat, Vapour pressure, Factor affecting vapour pressure, Surface area, Types of molecule, Temperature and Intermolecular forces, Sublimation Critical point
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Physical pharmacy i third semester (unit-i) solubility of drugMs. Pooja Bhandare
Physical pharmaceutics is the study of physicochemical properties of drug molecules in designing dosage forms. This document discusses the definitions and concepts related to solubility of drugs. It defines key terms like solute, solvent, saturated solution, and explains how solubility is expressed quantitatively and qualitatively. The mechanisms of solute-solvent interactions are discussed based on the nature of solvents being polar, non-polar or semi-polar. Specific examples are provided to illustrate solubility principles for different classes of solvents.
Buffers in pharmaceutical and biological systemBASIT MANZOOR
1. The document discusses buffers in pharmaceutical and biological systems. It describes various buffer systems that function in the human body to maintain blood pH, including bicarbonate-carbonic acid, phosphate, and protein buffers.
2. The bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system regulates blood pH through reactions involving sodium bicarbonate, carbonic acid, and water. The phosphate buffer system involves the conversion between sodium dihydrogen phosphate and sodium monohydrogen phosphate through reactions with strong acids and bases.
3. Hemoglobin and proteins also act as buffers, with hemoglobin buffering pH changes during the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and proteins buffering pH in blood plasma and within
Complexation and Protein Binding [Part-2](Method of analysis, Complexation a...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses various methods for analyzing complexes, including continuous variation (Job's) method, distribution method, solubility method, pH titration method, and spectroscopy. The continuous variation method analyzes changes in physical properties like dielectric constant when complexes form to determine stoichiometric ratios. The distribution method examines how the distribution of a solute between immiscible liquids changes with complexation to estimate stability constants. The solubility method observes whether solubility increases or decreases with the addition of a complexing agent. pH titration is reliable for complexes that affect pH upon formation. Spectroscopy techniques like UV and NMR are also used to determine rate constants and equilibrium constants.
The document discusses complexation, which is the combination of individual groups or molecules to form larger molecules or ions. Complexes are formed through coordination bonds between a central metal atom or ion and surrounding ligands. Ligands can be monodentate, bidentate, or polydentate. Complexation has applications in drug delivery through properties like enhanced solubility and stability. Metal ion complexes and organic molecular complexes are discussed as examples. Protein binding of drugs is another type of complexation that affects drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion by binding drugs and rendering them pharmacologically inactive. Factors influencing protein binding include drug properties, protein properties, and patient factors.
Physical Pharmaceutics-IUnit-IIISurface and Interfacial tension (Part-1)(Li...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses liquid interfaces and surface and interfacial tension. It defines a liquid interface as the boundary between phases in contact, with surface referring specifically to the boundary between a liquid and gas. Surface tension is the force per unit length acting at right angles to the liquid surface and arises from cohesive intermolecular forces being imbalanced at the surface. Molecules in the bulk liquid experience equal attractive forces from all sides, while surface molecules only experience inward attraction. This imbalance causes the surface to contract and results in surface tension. Interfacial tension similarly describes the imbalance of forces at the boundary between immiscible liquids. Some examples of liquid surface tensions are provided.
Complexation and Protein Binding [Part-1](Introduction and Classification an...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Complexation: Classification of complexation:
Metal ion or co-ordination complexes :
Inorganic type Organic molecular complexes :
Quinhydrone type
Picric acid type
Caffeine and other drug complexes
Polymer type
Inclusion or occlusion compound
Channel lattice type
Layer type
Monomolecular type
Macromolecular type
Chelates
Olefin type
Aromatic type
Pi (п) complexes
Sigma (б) complexes
Sandwich complexes
1. Complex compounds are molecules where some bonds cannot be described by classical theories of valency and involve anomalous bonds.
2. Complexes form through interactions like coordination bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals forces between different chemical species.
3. Complexation can alter properties like solubility, conductivity, and chemical reactivity and is used in applications like increasing drug solubility, purification of water, drug analysis, and as anticoagulants.
This document discusses various physicochemical properties of drug molecules that are important for product development, including refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, and dissociation constant. It provides definitions and measurement techniques for each property, as well as their applications in areas like product formulation, storage conditions, identification of substances, and understanding acid-base equilibria. Measurement of these properties allows for characterization of drug molecules and optimization of drug products.
Solubility of liquids in liquids, The term miscibility refers to the mutual solubility of the component of liquid - liquid system, Raoult’s Law, Raoult’s law may be mathematically expressed as: Ideal solution, Real solution
4th (30.10.2014) on eutectic mixture by Diptarco SinghaDiptarco Singha
this ppt is very simple and has immence importance in physical pharmacy. it has been prepared based on the syllabus of WBUT & consists of informations of elimentary label...
Surface and Interfacial tension [Part-5](HLB System, Solubilization )Ms. Pooja Bhandare
This document discusses the HLB (hydrophilic lipophilic balance) system for classifying surfactants. It explains that HLB values indicate whether a surfactant is more hydrophilic or lipophilic. Methods for estimating a surfactant's HLB value involve assigning group numbers to different parts of the molecule. Required HLB values can predict whether a surfactant will form a stable oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion with a given oil. However, the HLB system has limitations and does not consider surfactant concentration which also impacts emulsion stability.
This document discusses pH buffers and isotonic solutions. It defines pH as a measure of acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution, outlines methods of pH measurement including electrometric, pH paper, and colorimetric methods, and discusses the importance and applications of buffers in biological and pharmaceutical systems like blood and tears which require precise pH regulation. It also defines isotonic solutions as those that do not cause cell contraction or swelling when injected and discusses related concepts like osmotic pressure, osmolality, and osmolarity.
pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions are important concepts in chemistry, biology, and related scientific fields. They play significant roles in understanding and controlling the behavior of solutions, maintaining physiological balance, and conducting various experiments and processes.
Buffer solutions are aqueous solutions that resist changes in pH upon the addition of small amounts of acid or base. They work by having both a weak acid and its conjugate base present in solution. Common examples include acetate, phosphate, and bicarbonate buffers. Buffers are important in biological systems like blood to regulate pH, and are also used in pharmaceuticals, biochemical assays, food, and other applications where constant pH is necessary. Their ability to neutralize added acid or base comes from the equilibrium between the weak acid and its conjugate base that can absorb added H+ or OH- ions.
The objective is to understand the buffer equation, factors influencing the pH of buffer solutions, Buffer capacity, Buffer in pharmaceutical systems and biologic system, Influence of buffer capacity and pH on tissue, pH and solubility
Measurement of Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)ECRD IN
This document discusses pH and methods of measuring pH. It begins with an overview of pH and what it measures. It then describes the pH scale and how pH values are calculated from hydrogen ion concentration. Various pH indicators and their color changes in different pH ranges are presented in a table. The document mainly focuses on using a pH meter with glass electrodes to accurately measure pH. It provides details on operating, calibrating, and storing measurements with a pH meter. Buffer solutions used for calibration are also described.
This document discusses pH and methods of measuring pH. It begins with an overview of pH and what it measures. It then describes the pH scale and how pH values are calculated from hydrogen ion concentration. Various pH indicators and their color changes in different pH ranges are presented in a table. The document mainly focuses on using a pH meter with glass electrodes to accurately measure pH. It provides details on operating, calibrating, and storing measurements with a pH meter. Buffer solutions used for calibration are also described.
Measurement of hydrogen ion concentration (p h)ECRD2015
This document discusses pH and methods of measuring pH. It begins with an overview of pH and what it measures. It then describes the pH scale and how pH values are calculated from hydrogen ion concentration. Various pH indicators and their color changes in different pH ranges are presented in a table. The document mainly focuses on using a pH meter with glass electrodes to accurately measure pH. It provides details on operating, calibrating, and storing measurements with a pH meter. Buffer solutions used for calibration are also described.
The document discusses the challenges of accurately measuring pH in deionized water due to its low ionic strength and buffering capacity. It explains that resistivity can be used instead to infer pH, as deionized water with 18.2 MΩ resistivity will have a neutral pH of 7. The types of ions present from dissolved salts affect pH, depending on if they come from strong acids/bases or weak acids/bases. Different deionization system configurations like SAC-WBA or SAC-SBA will produce characteristically lower or higher pH ranges due to the ions they remove or don't remove.
The document discusses acid-base balance and buffers. It provides:
1. The syllabus for MBBS and BDS programs which covers topics like pH, Henderson-Hasselbach equation, acid-base regulation in the human body, and importance of selectively permeable membranes.
2. Information on water functions in the body, its role in thermal regulation, and water movement via osmosis.
3. Definitions of acids, bases, pH, and how buffers work to resist pH changes when acids or bases are added. Common buffer systems in the body like bicarbonate are discussed.
4. Applications of the Henderson-Hasselbach equation to calculate pH changes, abundance of ion
This document discusses principles of acid/base titrations and neutralization titration curves. It explores different types of titrations including strong acids with strong bases, weak acids with strong bases, and weak bases with strong acids. The key points covered are:
1) Neutralization titrations rely on the reaction of an analyte with a standard reagent and indicators or instruments are used to locate the endpoint.
2) Titration curves are affected by factors like concentration and acid/base strength. Weaker acids have smaller pH changes at the equivalence point.
3) Choosing a suitable indicator depends on the analyte concentration and strength. Indicators with transitions in the basic range are preferred for
This document discusses pH, buffers, and isotonic solutions. It begins by defining pH and describing methods of pH determination. It then explains what buffers are, how they work, and some common buffer systems used in pharmaceutical and biological applications. Buffer capacity is defined as the resistance of a buffer solution to changes in pH. The document concludes by discussing isotonic and buffered isotonic solutions, noting that isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure as body fluids to prevent cell shrinking or swelling.
This document discusses buffers and isotonic solutions. It begins by defining a buffer as a solution that resists changes in pH from the addition of acids or bases. Buffers work best when the amounts of undissociated acid and conjugate base are equal. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates the pH of a buffer solution to the concentrations of acid and conjugate base. Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure as human tissues to prevent changes in cell volume after administration. Solutions can be isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic depending on solute concentration compared to tissues. Calculations using freezing point depression allow preparing isotonic solutions of desired concentrations.
This document provides instructions for using a compact laboratory kit to test water quality parameters.
The kit allows users to test for ammonium, carbonate hardness, total hardness, nitrate, nitrite, pH, phosphate, oxygen, and oxygen consumption. It includes reagents, test vessels, color comparison cards, and auxiliary tables to help interpret results.
Tests are based on colorimetric and titrimetric methods. The document provides definitions of key terms, testing principles and ranges, sampling guidance, and step-by-step instructions for each parameter. It also addresses potential influences on tests and how to perform method controls.
PH meter of buffer solution الدكتور كرار رأفت علوش < Dr. karrar raafat alwashDr. Karrar Alwash
The document discusses the use of a pH meter to measure the pH of buffer solutions. It explains that a pH meter measures the hydrogen ion concentration in solutions to determine if they are acidic or basic. It then describes how to create an acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer solution at pH 4.6 by mixing specific volumes of sodium acetate and acetic acid solutions. The pH meter must be calibrated first using standard pH buffers before measuring the prepared buffer. The experiment demonstrated creating a buffer at the target pH of 4.6.
Table Top Hydrazine Meter,Microprocessor Based Hydrazine Meter,Bench-top Hydrazine Sensor, Quality Benchtop Hydrazine Moniters,Portable Table Top Hydrazine Sensor,Weiber Hydrazine Analytical Instruments For More Information Please Logon http://cutt.us/Bjy1
This document discusses pH measurement and provides details on:
- The definition and scale of pH as a measure of acidity or alkalinity.
- Why pH is measured in various industries and applications.
- The principles of pH measurement using a glass electrode and pH meter.
- Factors that affect pH measurement accuracy such as temperature, ionic strength, and electrode calibration.
- The process of calibrating pH electrodes using buffer solutions and adjusting for the Nernstian slope.
Maintenance of pH of body fluids and its disorders for undergraduate medical students and postgraduate students in medicine, paediatrics, respiratory medicine etc
Volumetric Analysis
Titration Basics
Reaction, End point & Indicators
Types of Titrations
Acid – Base Theory & Principles
Acid Base titration
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration
Calculation
General Information
Errors
Volumetric Analysis
Types of titration
Acid- Base Theory
Reaction, End Point & Indicators
Acid- Base titration
Titration curve
Non- Aqueous Titration
Precipitation Titration
Complexometric Titration
Oxidation- Reduction Titration,
Calculation. Errors
General Informations,
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This document discusses several classes of drugs used to treat cardiovascular conditions like hypertension, angina, arrhythmias, and atherosclerosis. It describes antihypertensive drugs like diuretics and adrenergic drugs that lower blood pressure. Anti-anginal drugs like nitrates and calcium channel blockers are used to treat angina by dilating blood vessels and reducing oxygen demand. Anti-arrhythmic drugs block sodium or potassium channels to control abnormal heart rhythms. Drugs for atherosclerosis include statins and fibrates that inhibit cholesterol synthesis and bile acid sequestrants that bind bile to prevent cholesterol reabsorption. Each drug class is explained with examples, mechanisms of action, indications, contraindications and typical
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
2. Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion (H+) in a given
solution.
A figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution on a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral
The pH is equal to −log10 c, where c is the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles per litre.
2
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3. Buffer solution usually containing an acid and a base,
or a salt, that tends to maintain a constant hydrogen
ion concentration.
Ions are atoms or molecules that have lost or gained
one or more electrons.
An example of a common buffer is a solution of acetic
acid (CH3COOH) and sodium acetate.
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4. In water solution, sodium acetate is completely
dissociated into sodium (Na+) and acetate (CH3COO-)
ions.
The hydrogen ion concentration of the buffer solution
is given by the expression:
[H+] = Ka [CH3COOH/CH3COO-]
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5. Buffer solutions with different hydrogen ion
concentrations may be prepared by varying the buffer
ratio and by choice of an acid .
Buffer solutions commonly used include phosphoric,
citric, or boric acids and their salts.
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6. Because acids and bases tend to promote a wide range
of chemical reactions, the maintenance of a certain
level of acidity or alkalinity in a solution through the
use of buffer solutions is essential to many chemical
and biological experiments.
Many biochemical processes occur only at specific pH
values, which are maintained by natural buffers
present in the body.
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7. Solution that has the same salt concentration as
cells and blood.
Common examples of isotonic solutions are: -
0.9% normal saline and lactated ringers.
These fluids are useful when the patient has lost fluid
volume from blood loss, trauma, or dehydration due to
excessive nausea/vomiting or diarrhea.
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8. Based on the values and different concentration of
ions, a scale is devised and named after Sorenson, who
had developed it.
Sorensen's scale assigns a pH of 1 to 14.
With 1 being the most acidic, 14 being the most basic,
and 7 being neutral (neither acidic or basic).
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9. The pH scale works in powers of ten, so each jump in
number is a multiple of 10 in concentration.
For example, a pH of 1 is 10 times more acidic than a
pH of 2
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10. There are two methods for measuring pH:
a. Colorimetric methods :-
Using indicator/solutions or papers
b. Electrochemical methods :-
Using electrodes and pH meter
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11. pH (colorimetric) method is based on the property
of acid-base indicator dyes, which produce color
depending on the pH of the sample.
The color change can be measured as an absorbance
change spectrophotometrically.
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12. INTENDED USE :- Reagent for photometric
determination of pH (colorimetric) in homogenous
liquid samples.
METHOD :- Colorimetric test with pH indicator dyes
in an aqueous solution. Method is performed at 37 °C,
using 575 nm filter and 700 nm as side Wavelenght.
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13. PRINCIPLE OF THE PROCEDURE :-
pH (colorimetric) method is based on the property of
acid-base indicator dyes, which produce color
depending on the pH of the sample.
The color change can be measured as an absorbance
change Spectrophotometrically.
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14. The determination may be made with any pH meter
provided with a glass electrode, using instructions
from the manufacturer. Express the result to the
nearest 0.1 units. Electronic pH measurement system
consists of :-
Measuring electrode
Reference electrode
Potential measuring system
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15. Measuring electrode: - A glass electrode is made of a thin
glass membrane of special composition that could develop
potential proportional to the difference in H+ ion
concentration of liquid on either side of the membrane.
The glass envelope has pH sensitive glass membrane at the
bottom that contains constant pH buffer solution.
This electrode is dipped in the measuring solution so that
potential is developed at the platinum electrode which is
proportional to the pH of the measuring solution.
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16. This potential is measured by completing the circuit
with the reference electrode.
Reference electrode: Calomel electrode can be used as
reference electrode which has glass envelope that
contains glass tube which contains calomel (mercury
and mercurous chloride) solution along with platinum
wire dipped in it.
This tube is surrounded by KCl solution that slowly
diffuses or leaks into process liquid through liquids
junction provided by asbestos fibre.
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17. Due to this, the reference electrode develops constant
potential.
• Potential measuring system: The measuring and the
reference electrode together form an electrolytic cell
whose output equals the sum of the voltage produced
by the two electrodes.
• This net voltage is applied to a null balance mill volt
potentiometer in which the slide wire can be
calibrated in terms of the pH of the measuring liquid.
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18. Since the electrode operation depends upon the
electrical resistivity of glass, change in temperature
may cause an error in pH reading.
To compensate for changes in temperature of the
measuring solution a temperature compensation
resistance is included in the circuit which is immersed
in the solution. The resistance of this resistor changes
with temperature.
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19. A buffered pH is a necessity of most enzymes to
function efficiently and correctly. Furthermore,
buffering is important for ensuring proper colour
concentration when using dyes.
A buffer solution is required for calibrating
equipment. It is especially required for pH meters that
may be in the Miscalibrated in the absence of a buffer.
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20. Buffer solutions whose preparation takes place from
acetic acid, citric acid, ammonia can have pH values as
high as 10 or as low as 2.
This allows buffer solutions to be worked with very
strong bases or acids.
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21. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation provides a
relationship between the pH of acids (in aqueous
solutions) and their pKa (acid dissociation constant).
The pH of a buffer solution can be estimated with the
help of this equation when the concentration of the
acid and its conjugate base, or the base and the
corresponding conjugate acid, are known.
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22. Equation of Henderson-Hasselbalch
The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be written
as:
pH = pKa + log10 ([A–]/[HA])
Where [A–] denotes the molar concentration of the
conjugate base (of the acid) and [HA] denotes the
molar concentration of the weak acid.
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23. Buffer capacity (β) is defined as the moles of an acid
or base necessary to change the pH of a solution
by 1 , divided by the pH change and the volume of
buffer in liters.
It is a unit-less number.
A buffer resists changes in pH due to the addition of an
acid or base though consumption of the buffer
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24. As long as the buffer has not been completely reacted,
the pH will not change drastically.
The pH change will increase (or decrease) more
drastically as the buffer is depleted: it becomes less
resistant to change.
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25. Biological buffers.
Blood is maintained at a pH of about 7.4. The plasma
contains carbonic acid/bicarbonate and acid/alkali sodium
salts of phosphoric acid as buffers.
Plasma proteins, which behave as acids in blood, can
combine with bases and so act as buffers.
In the erythrocytes, the two buffer systems consist of
hemoglobin/Oxy-hemoglobin and acid/alkali potassium
salts of phosphoric acid.
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26. Lacrimal fluid or tears, have been found to have a
great degree of buffer capacity, allowing a dilution of
1:15 with neutral distilled water.
The pH of tears is about 7.4, with a range of 7 to 8 or
slightly higher. It is generally thought that eye drops
within a pH range of 4 to 10 will not harm the cornea.
However, discomfort and a flow of tears will occur
below pH 6.6 and above pH 9.0.
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27. Urine The 24-hr urine collection of a normal adult has
a pH averaging about 6.0 units; it may be as low as 4.5
or as high as 7.8.
When the pH of the urine is below normal values,
hydrogen ions are excreted by the kidneys.
Conversely, when the urine is above pH 7.4, hydrogen
ions are retained by action of the kidneys in order to
return the pH to its normal range of values.
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28. Buffer solutions are used frequently in pharmaceutical
practice, particularly in the formulation of ophthalmic
solutions.
Many buffers are available today. One of the most
common biological buffers is phosphate buffered
saline (PBS).
Phosphate buffered saline contains sodium chloride
(NaCl) and dibasic sodium phosphate (Na2PO4).
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29. It may also contain potassium chloride (KCl),
monobasic potassium phosphate (KH2PO4), calcium
chloride (CaCl2), and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4).
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30. Pharmaceutical solutions that are meant for
application to delicate membranes of the body should
also be adjusted to approximately the same osmotic
pressure as that of the body fluids.
Isotonic solutions cause no swelling or contraction of
the tissues with which they come in contact and
produce no discomfort when instilled in the eye, nasal
tract, blood, or other body tissues.
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31. Isotonic sodium chloride is a familiar pharmaceutical
example of such a preparation.
The need to achieve isotonic conditions with solutions
to be applied to delicate membranes is dramatically
illustrated by mixing a small quantity of blood with
aqueous sodium chloride solutions of varying tonicity.
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32. If a small quantity of blood is mixed with a solution
containing 0.9 g of NaCl per 100 mL, the cells retain
their normal size.
The solution has essentially the same salt
concentration and hence the same osmotic pressure as
the red blood cell contents
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33. If the red blood cells are suspended in a 2.0% NaCl
solution, the water within the cells passes through the
cell membrane in an attempt to dilute the surrounding
salt solution.
This outward passage of water causes the cells to
shrink and become wrinkled or-crenated.
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34. If the blood is mixed with 0.2% NaCl solution or with
distilled water, water enters the blood cells, causing
them to swell and finally burst, with the liberation of
hemoglobin.
The salt solution in this instance is said to be with
respect to the blood cell contents.
Finally, This phenomenon is known as hemolysis.
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35. The red blood cell membrane is not impermeable to
all drugs; that is, it is not a perfect semi-permeable
membrane.
Thus, it will permit the passage of not only water
molecules but also solutes such as urea, ammonium
chloride, alcohol, and boric acid.
These solutes are regarded as solvent and they do not
exert an osmotic pressure on the membrane
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36. Os-molality and os-molarity:- Are colligative
properties that measure the concentration of the
solutes independently of their ability to cross a cell
membrane.
Tonicity:- is the concentration of only the solutes that
cannot cross the membrane since these solutes exert
an osmotic pressure on that membrane.
Tonicity is not the difference between the two
osmolarities on opposing sides of the membrane.
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37. 1) Hemolytic method.
2) Measurement of the slight temperature differences.
3) Calculating Tonicity.
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38. Class I Methods :-
a) Cryoscopic Method
b)Sodium Chloride Equivalent (E) Method
Class II Methods
a)White–Vincent Method
b)The Sprowls Method
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