Theories of Employee Motivation

Organizational BehaviorOrganizational Behavior
Theories of Employee MotivationTheories of Employee Motivation
Topics CoveredTopics Covered
• Definition of MotivationDefinition of Motivation
• Need TheoriesNeed Theories
• Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
• Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
• Self-efficacy TheorySelf-efficacy Theory
• Justice TheoriesJustice Theories
• Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory
• Control TheoryControl Theory
• Action Theory.Action Theory.
Syed Md. Sajjad Kabir, Faculty, Dept. of Psychology, CUSyed Md. Sajjad Kabir, Faculty, Dept. of Psychology, CUSMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
11

MotivationMotivation
• Internal state that induces a person toInternal state that induces a person to
engage in particular behaviors.engage in particular behaviors.
• It has to do with the direction, intensity,It has to do with the direction, intensity,
and persistence of behavior over time.and persistence of behavior over time.
Direction:Direction: choice of specific behaviorschoice of specific behaviors
from a number of possible behaviorsfrom a number of possible behaviors
Intensity:Intensity: amount of effort a personamount of effort a person
expends at doing a taskexpends at doing a task
Persistence:Persistence: continuing engagement in acontinuing engagement in a
behavior over timebehavior over timeSMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
22

MotivationMotivation
Motivation is the desire to acquire or achieveMotivation is the desire to acquire or achieve
some goal--originating in wants, needs, orsome goal--originating in wants, needs, or
desires.desires.
The interaction of motivation and abilityThe interaction of motivation and ability
determines a person’s potential performancedetermines a person’s potential performance
in any activity.in any activity.
P = A X MP = A X M
Where, P = Potential PerformanceWhere, P = Potential Performance
A = Ability = Knowledge X SkillA = Ability = Knowledge X Skill
M = Motivation = Attitude X SituationM = Motivation = Attitude X Situation
Organizational Results = Potential Performance X Resources XOrganizational Results = Potential Performance X Resources X
Opportunity.Opportunity.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
33

□□ Primary Ingredients of MotivationPrimary Ingredients of Motivation
AbilityAbility is the individual’s capacityis the individual’s capacity
to do something. If a person has theto do something. If a person has the
ability to sell, s/he may be a terrificability to sell, s/he may be a terrific
salesperson.salesperson.
EffortEffort is the time, drive, and energyis the time, drive, and energy
the individual expends in the pursuitthe individual expends in the pursuit
of an objective.of an objective.
DesireDesire is the wish, want, or urge foris the wish, want, or urge for
a particular objective.a particular objective.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
44

Need Goal-Directed
Behavior
Satisfaction of
the Need
□□ Common Aspects of MotivationCommon Aspects of Motivation
The three common aspects of motivation dealThe three common aspects of motivation deal
with -with -
(1)(1) what energizes human behavior,what energizes human behavior,
(2) how this behavior is directed or channeled,(2) how this behavior is directed or channeled,
andand
(3) how the behavior can be maintained using a(3) how the behavior can be maintained using a
‘needs’ approach.‘needs’ approach.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
55

Need theoriesNeed theories
Motivation as arising fromMotivation as arising from
people’s needs or desires forpeople’s needs or desires for
things.things.
Needs can differ within the sameNeeds can differ within the same
person over time and acrossperson over time and across
people.people.
Need theories have contributed toNeed theories have contributed to
OB by showing how people canOB by showing how people can
vary in the rewards they want fromvary in the rewards they want from
work.work. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
66

Need theoriesNeed theories
Basic physical needs called PrimaryBasic physical needs called Primary
Needs, andNeeds, and
Social and psychological needs calledSocial and psychological needs called
Secondary Needs.Secondary Needs.
 Primary or physical needs includePrimary or physical needs include
food, water, sex, sleep, air, andfood, water, sex, sleep, air, and
reasonably comfortable temperature.reasonably comfortable temperature.
 Secondary needs are more vagueSecondary needs are more vague
because they represent needs of thebecause they represent needs of the
mind and spirit rather than of thatmind and spirit rather than of that
physical body.physical body.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
77

McClelland’s Need TheoriesMcClelland’s Need Theories
1.1. Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement:: wants to takewants to take
personal responsibility; goal-oriented;personal responsibility; goal-oriented;
seeks a challenge and desires concreteseeks a challenge and desires concrete
feed back.feed back.
2.2. Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation:: seeks to establish andseeks to establish and
maintain friendships and close emotionalmaintain friendships and close emotional
relationships with others; wants to berelationships with others; wants to be
liked by others; enjoys parties, socialliked by others; enjoys parties, social
activities.activities.
3.3. Need for PowerNeed for Power:: concern with acquiring,concern with acquiring,
exercising, or retaining power orexercising, or retaining power or
influence over other; likes to beinfluence over other; likes to be
dominant; enjoys confrontations withdominant; enjoys confrontations withSMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
88

McClelland’s Need TheoriesMcClelland’s Need Theories
McClelland says that there areMcClelland says that there are
two basic aspects of power –two basic aspects of power –
 Positive use of power isPositive use of power is
absolutely essential if aabsolutely essential if a
manager is to effective.manager is to effective.
 Negative face of power is whenNegative face of power is when
an individual seeks power foran individual seeks power for
his or her own personalhis or her own personal
benefit.benefit. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
99

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy TheoryMaslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
 Fulfillment of human needs is necessary for both physical andFulfillment of human needs is necessary for both physical and
psychological health (Maslow, 1943).psychological health (Maslow, 1943).
 Lowest level needs:Lowest level needs: physiological-physiological-
e.g., air, water, and food.e.g., air, water, and food.
 Second level needs:Second level needs: safety-safety-
such as security and shelter.such as security and shelter.
 Third level needs:Third level needs: lovelove
e.g., love, affection, and affiliation withe.g., love, affection, and affiliation with
others.others.
 Fourth level needs:Fourth level needs: esteemesteem
e.g., self-respect and respect frome.g., self-respect and respect from
others.others.
 Top level needs:Top level needs: self-actualizationself-actualization
fulfillment of personal life goalsfulfillment of personal life goals
and of one’s potential.and of one’s potential. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
1010

Two-Factor TheoryTwo-Factor Theory
 Motivation comes from the nature of the job itself,Motivation comes from the nature of the job itself,
not external rewards or job conditionsnot external rewards or job conditions
(Herzberg;1968).(Herzberg;1968).
 Maintenance/ Hygiene factors:Maintenance/ Hygiene factors: factors that preventfactors that prevent
dissatisfaction but do not generate satisfaction ordissatisfaction but do not generate satisfaction or
motivate workers to greater effort.motivate workers to greater effort.
 Salary:Salary: adequate wage, salary, fringe benefitsadequate wage, salary, fringe benefits
 Job Security:Job Security: company grievance procedure andcompany grievance procedure and
seniority privilegesseniority privileges
 Working condition:Working condition: adequate heat, light,adequate heat, light,
ventilation, and hours of workventilation, and hours of work
SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
1111

Maintenance/ Hygiene factorsMaintenance/ Hygiene factors
Status:Status: privileges, job titles, ranks andprivileges, job titles, ranks and
positionspositions
Company Policies:Company Policies: policy of thepolicy of the
organization and fairness of admin.organization and fairness of admin.
Quality of Technical Supervision:Quality of Technical Supervision:
whether or not an employee gets answerswhether or not an employee gets answers
of the job related questions.of the job related questions.
Quality of interpersonal relationships:Quality of interpersonal relationships:
among peers, supervisors, subordinates,among peers, supervisors, subordinates,
social opportunity and development ofsocial opportunity and development of
comfortable operating relationship.comfortable operating relationship.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
1212

 Motivation factors:Motivation factors: Job factors that providesJob factors that provides
satisfaction and therefore motivation, but whosesatisfaction and therefore motivation, but whose
absence causes no satisfaction-absence causes no satisfaction-
 Achievement:Achievement: opportunity for accomplishment,opportunity for accomplishment,
contributing something of valuecontributing something of value
 Recognition:Recognition: acknowledgement that contributions isacknowledgement that contributions is
worth the effort and effort is noted and appreciatedworth the effort and effort is noted and appreciated
 Responsibility:Responsibility: acquisition of new duties oracquisition of new duties or
responsibilities through expansion of job or byresponsibilities through expansion of job or by
delegationdelegation
 Advancement:Advancement: improvement of an employee’simprovement of an employee’s
organizational position as a result of job performanceorganizational position as a result of job performance
 The work itself:The work itself: opportunity for self-expression,opportunity for self-expression,
personal satisfaction, and challenge.personal satisfaction, and challenge.
Two-Factor TheoryTwo-Factor Theory
1313

Alderfer’s E-R-G TheoryAlderfer’s E-R-G Theory
 Instead of the five categories of needs suggested byInstead of the five categories of needs suggested by
Maslow, Alderfer’s ERG model holds that theMaslow, Alderfer’s ERG model holds that the
individual has three sets of basic needs – existenceindividual has three sets of basic needs – existence
(E), relatedness (R), and growth (G); hence the label(E), relatedness (R), and growth (G); hence the label
ERG Theory.ERG Theory.
 Existence Needs or Material NeedsExistence Needs or Material Needs – are satisfied by– are satisfied by
food, air, water, pay, fringe benefits, and workingfood, air, water, pay, fringe benefits, and working
conditions.conditions.
 Relatedness NeedsRelatedness Needs – are met by establishing and– are met by establishing and
maintaining interpersonal relationships with co-maintaining interpersonal relationships with co-
workers, superiors, subordinates, friends, andworkers, superiors, subordinates, friends, and
family.family.
 Growth NeedsGrowth Needs – are expressed by an individual’s– are expressed by an individual’s
attempt to find opportunities for unique personalattempt to find opportunities for unique personal
development by making creative or productivedevelopment by making creative or productive
contributions at work.contributions at work.
1414

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Rewards or reinforcements affect behavior; itRewards or reinforcements affect behavior; it
explains behavior as a function ofexplains behavior as a function of
reinforcement history--prior rewardreinforcement history--prior reward
experiences.experiences.
Behavior is a response to the environment.Behavior is a response to the environment.
The probability of a behavior increases if it isThe probability of a behavior increases if it is
followed by a reward or reinforcement, andfollowed by a reward or reinforcement, and
decreases if it is followed by a punishment (decreases if it is followed by a punishment (lawlaw
of effectof effect; Thorndike, 1913).; Thorndike, 1913).
In a job context, performance-relevantIn a job context, performance-relevant
behaviors will increase in frequency ifbehaviors will increase in frequency if
rewarded.rewarded. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
1515

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Rewards lead to behavior byRewards lead to behavior by
focusing on internal cognitivefocusing on internal cognitive
states that lead to motivation--states that lead to motivation--
explains when and whyexplains when and why
reinforcement will lead toreinforcement will lead to
behavior.behavior.
People will be motivated whenPeople will be motivated when
they believe their behavior willthey believe their behavior will
lead to rewards or outcomeslead to rewards or outcomes
they want.they want. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
1616

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
 Motivation or force is a mathematical function ofMotivation or force is a mathematical function of
three types of cognitions (Vroom;1964).three types of cognitions (Vroom;1964).
 ForceForce: amount of motivation a person has to: amount of motivation a person has to
engage in a behavior.engage in a behavior.
 ExpectancyExpectancy: subjective probability (felt: subjective probability (felt
confidence) a person has that s/he can perform theconfidence) a person has that s/he can perform the
behavior successfully.behavior successfully.
 ValenceValence: value of an outcome to a person.: value of an outcome to a person.
 InstrumentalityInstrumentality: subjective probability (felt: subjective probability (felt
confidence) that a given behavior will result in aconfidence) that a given behavior will result in a
particular outcome.particular outcome.
Force = Expectancy x Σ (Valences x Instrumentalities).
Motivation = Ex Vx I
1717

Self-Efficacy TheorySelf-Efficacy Theory
 The belief that one is capable ofThe belief that one is capable of
accomplishing a task.accomplishing a task.
 Motivation and performance are partlyMotivation and performance are partly
determined by how effective people believedetermined by how effective people believe
they can be (Bandura, 1982).they can be (Bandura, 1982).
Justice TheoriesJustice Theories
Focus on norms for fair treatment ofFocus on norms for fair treatment of
employees by their organizations.employees by their organizations.
 Equity TheoryEquity Theory
 Fairness TheoryFairness Theory
1818

Equity theoryEquity theory
An individual's subjective judgments about the fairness of the reward s/he got,An individual's subjective judgments about the fairness of the reward s/he got,
relative to the inputs (e.g., effort, experience, education) in comparison with therelative to the inputs (e.g., effort, experience, education) in comparison with the
rewards of others.rewards of others.
J. Stacy Adams formulated the equity theory:J. Stacy Adams formulated the equity theory:
Outcomes by a person/Inputs by a person = Outcomes
by another person/Inputs by another person
If people feel that they are inequitably rewarded, they may be dissatisfied. The quantity or qualityIf people feel that they are inequitably rewarded, they may be dissatisfied. The quantity or quality
of their output will reduce, or they may leave the organization.of their output will reduce, or they may leave the organization.
If people perceive the rewards as equitable, they probably will continue at the same level ofIf people perceive the rewards as equitable, they probably will continue at the same level of
output.output.
If people think the rewards are greater than what is considered equitable, they may work harder.If people think the rewards are greater than what is considered equitable, they may work harder.
1919

Some of the Typical Inputs and Outcomes UsedSome of the Typical Inputs and Outcomes Used
by Individuals in Measuring Perceived Equityby Individuals in Measuring Perceived Equity
Inputs OutcomesInputs Outcomes
Education PayEducation Pay
Experience Fringe benefitsExperience Fringe benefits
Training Job statusTraining Job status
Skill Seniority benefitsSkill Seniority benefits
Job effort Working conditionsJob effort Working conditions
Seniority Job perquisitesSeniority Job perquisites
Equity theoryEquity theory
Person alters the input by putting in more or less time.Person alters the input by putting in more or less time.
Person attempts to alter the output by turning out more or less work.Person attempts to alter the output by turning out more or less work.
Person changes his or her perception of how much is being given orPerson changes his or her perception of how much is being given or
received.received.
Person simply stops comparing himself or herself with certain otherPerson simply stops comparing himself or herself with certain other
people.people.
Person acts against the individual or group with whom thePerson acts against the individual or group with whom the
comparison is being made.comparison is being made. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2020

Fairness TheoryFairness Theory
Distinguishes between the distribution of rewardsDistinguishes between the distribution of rewards
and the procedures by which rewards areand the procedures by which rewards are
allocated (Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp,allocated (Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp,
2001).2001).
 Procedural justiceProcedural justice: concern with the fairness of: concern with the fairness of
the reward distribution process.the reward distribution process.
 Distributive justiceDistributive justice: concern the fairness with: concern the fairness with
which rewards are found among people (similar towhich rewards are found among people (similar to
equity).equity).
 Both distributive and procedural justice is relatedBoth distributive and procedural justice is related
to job performance and job satisfaction.to job performance and job satisfaction.
 Procedural justice is more important for women,Procedural justice is more important for women,
and distributive justice is more important forand distributive justice is more important for
men.men. SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2121

Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory
Behavior is motivated by internalBehavior is motivated by internal
intentions, objectives, or goalsintentions, objectives, or goals
(Locke and Latham, 1990).(Locke and Latham, 1990).
A goal is what the personA goal is what the person
consciously wants to attain orconsciously wants to attain or
achieve.achieve.
a. Can be specific or general.a. Can be specific or general.
b. General goals are oftenb. General goals are often
associated with a group of moreassociated with a group of more
specific goals.specific goals.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2222

Goals direct attention andGoals direct attention and
action to behaviors that theaction to behaviors that the
person believes will achieveperson believes will achieve
the goal.the goal.
a. Goals increase effort.a. Goals increase effort.
b. Goals increaseb. Goals increase
persistence.persistence.
c. Goals can motivate thec. Goals can motivate the
search for effective strategiessearch for effective strategiesSMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2323

For goal-setting to improve jobFor goal-setting to improve job
performance in anperformance in an
organization.organization.
a. Employees must accept thea. Employees must accept the
goal--goal commitment.goal--goal commitment.
b. The goal should be difficult.b. The goal should be difficult.
c. The goal should be specific.c. The goal should be specific.
d. Employees must getd. Employees must get
feedback on progress towardfeedback on progress toward
the goal.the goal.
2424

Control TheoryControl Theory
 It focuses on how feedback affects effort towardIt focuses on how feedback affects effort toward
goals (Klein, 1989).goals (Klein, 1989).
 Involves the following steps:Involves the following steps:
1. Set goal1. Set goal
2. Receive feedback2. Receive feedback
3. Compare feedback on performance to the3. Compare feedback on performance to the
goalgoal
4. In response to the discrepancies between4. In response to the discrepancies between
feedback and the goal, individuals with either:feedback and the goal, individuals with either:
a. modify behavior (e.g., work harder)a. modify behavior (e.g., work harder)
b. modify the goalb. modify the goal
2525

Action TheoryAction Theory
A comprehensive German theory ofA comprehensive German theory of
work behavior that describes a processwork behavior that describes a process
linking goals to behaviors (Frese &linking goals to behaviors (Frese &
Zapf, 1994).Zapf, 1994).
Focus mainly on goal-oriented orFocus mainly on goal-oriented or
voluntary behaviors called actions.voluntary behaviors called actions.
The action process linking aThe action process linking a
hierarchy of cognitions to both actionshierarchy of cognitions to both actions
and feedback from the environment.and feedback from the environment.
2626

Process involves the five steps:Process involves the five steps:
a. A person desires to accomplish or havea. A person desires to accomplish or have
something.something.
b. Goals and objectives are set, wherebyb. Goals and objectives are set, whereby
goals are tied to tasks (external orgoals are tied to tasks (external or
internal).internal).
c. A plan to achieve the goal is generated.c. A plan to achieve the goal is generated.
d. Actions are engaged to carry out thed. Actions are engaged to carry out the
plan.plan.
e. Feedback is received from thee. Feedback is received from the
environment or other people.environment or other people.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2727

Action theory contains personalityAction theory contains personality
variables.variables.
1. An action-oriented person tends to1. An action-oriented person tends to
follow the action process, whereasfollow the action process, whereas
state-oriented people are the opposite.state-oriented people are the opposite.
2. Action-oriented people tend to2. Action-oriented people tend to
perform better on the job, whereasperform better on the job, whereas
state-oriented people have a tendencystate-oriented people have a tendency
to procrastinate.to procrastinate.SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;SMS Kabir, smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd;
2828

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