Nursing Research

1. Prof. (DR.) Virendra Singh Choudhary

2. Introduction :-
Problem statement identified
Research design selected
Data collection begins
(so appropriate data collection method chosen to draw
accurate conclusions )

3. DATA:
 defined as pieces of information.
In singular-datum.
 depicted as figure such as height of
person, birth of a baby,
death in road accidents.

4.  TOOL:
“a device that a researcher
uses to collect the data. ”
E.g., observation, questionnaires,checklists
etc.

5.  TECHNIQUE :
“way or path of doing the
research study.
 METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION:
various steps and
strategies
used for gathering
and analyzing
data in a research
investigation

6. Data-observable and measurable
facts provide information about
phenomenon under study.
For e.g., physical growth of
infant is the phenomenon
under study, data measures
are body weight, height, chest
& head circumferences.

7. The five ‘Ws’ of the data collection are:
 What data is to be collected?
 From whom data is to be collected?
 Who will collect data?
 From where the data will be
collected?
 When is the data to be collected?

8.  PRIMARY
SOURCES
 SECONDARY
SOURCES

9. Individuals, objects, programmes, or
institutions.etc.
first-hand information from the respondents
or the situations,
By interviews, questioning,
observation, biochemical measurements,
and psychosocial measurement scales.

10.  Internal or external secondary sources.
Internal secondary sources
(private documents)
 Biographies
 Personal Diaries
 Letters
 Memoires

11. External sources(public documents)
published or unpublished records.
 Published records
 Journals
 Magazines
 Newspapers
 Government
reports
 statistical abstracts
 census reports
 constituents of mass
communication
 commission reports

12.  Unpublished records
 Official Records
 Patient Records
 Thesis
 Dissertations
 Reports.

13. METHODS
AND
TOOLS
OF DATA
COLLECTION

14. Type of method/techniques Tools for data collection
1. Interview - Interview schedule
- Opinionnaires
2. Questioning
(self-report)
- Questionnaire
- Opinionnaires
- Attitude scales/composite scales
(e.g., Likert scale and sematic
differential scale)
- Visual analogue scale
3.Observation - Rating scales
- Checklists
- Anecdotes
- Videotapes/films
- Closed circuit TV

15. Type of method/techniques Tools for data collection
1. Bio-physiological methods - In vivo bio-
physiological
measurements
- In vitro bio-
physiological
measurements
1. Other methods - Projective technique
- Q-sorts
- Vignettes

16. SELECTION OF METHODS OF
DATA COLLECTION:

17. several factors influencing method of data
collection :
The nature of phenomenon under study:-
For example,only
 observation such as
clinical practices or processes
in a particular nursing
procedure.
 & knowledge
of group of nurses
through
questioning or interviews.

18.  Type of research subjects:-
 For example,
physically or psychologically
disabled subjects by interviews
or through observation.
from objects or institutions,
by observation

19.  The type of research study:-
For example,
in qualitative research, focused group
interviews or unstructured participatory
interviews
while for quantitative research,
more structured interviews, questioning, or
observation

20.  The purpose of the research study:-
For example,
in exploration of phenomenon, in-depth
interviews
in description or correlation studies use
structured methods of data collection.

21.  Size of the study sample:-
small sample-
interviews or direct observation
For larger samples,
questionnaires

22.  Distribution of the target population:-
In large geographical area-
mailed questionnaires better option, more
convenient and cost-effective

23.  Time frame of the study:-
for a long time-use the less-structured methods
for short time-frame studies -short-term
research designs.

24.  Literacy level of the subjects:-
for illiterate subjects,
interviews conducted in native language.

25.  Availability of resources and manpower:-
interviews and observation
require more quantities of resources and
manpower
compared to questionnaires.

26.  Researcher’s knowledge level and
competence:-
for example
conducting an interview observation require
social and psychological knowledge,
skills, and competence,
while the use of questionnaires may not
demand these skills

27.  Accuracy and completeness of data
collection
 Compatible with subjects.
 Cost-effectiveness & speed in
 In accordance with nature of
phenomenon, type, purpose, time-
frame & resources available.

28.  Further, criteria while evaluating or
assessing the method for data collection:
-Is data collection method complete in all the
aspects to study the study variables?
 Are data collection methods thoroughly
described?
 Are data collection methods in accordance
to research questions/hypotheses to be
tested?

29.  Are validity and reliability of data
collection methods established?
 Are the number of methods used for data
collection sufficient for complete coverage
of research data or additional methods
required for data collection?
 Are anonymity and confidentiality
assured?
 Are instruments described in detail?
 Were the criterion measures or scoring
methods clearly established?

30. DEFINITIONS of INTERVIEW:
A method of data collection in which
one person (interviewer) asks the
questions from another person
(respondent); which is conducted
either face-to-face or telephonically.’

31.  An interview is a conversation
between two or more people
(interviewer and interviewee)
where questions are asked by
interviewer to obtain
information from the
interviewee.

32.  It may be defined as a two-way
systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated
for obtaining information relevant to a
specific study. It involves not only
conversations, but also learning from
respondent’s gestures, facial expressions
and pauses, and his or her environment.

33.  The participants, the interviewer,
and the respondent are strangers.
 Relationship is transitory one.
 Mode of obtaining verbal answers.
 Investigator records information
 Not casual conversational exchange
 face-to-face or telephonically

34.  Conversation between two persons,
not always limited to a single
respondent.
 interactional process- how they
perceive each other.
 Not a standardized process; can be
modified.

35.  Provide in-depth and detailed information
 Permits greater depth of response
 Data from illiterate subjects
 Higher response
 Clarify misunderstandings
 Ask questions at several levels
 Helps to gather other supplementary information
 Use of special devices
 Accuracy can be checked
 Flexible and adaptable
 People unable to write

36. Basically interview can be classified in
following six broad categories.
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW
 FOCUSED GROUP INTERVIEW
 TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

37.  Structured interview is a means of data
collection in which the interviewer has an
interview schedule in which the questions
are listed in the order in which they are to
be answered.
 standardized interviews.
 not permitted to change the specific
wording of the interview
schedule questions

38.  Limited set of questions.
 Present exactly the same questions
in the same order.
 It increases the reliability and
credibility of research data.
 It minimizes context effects

39.  Data easily comparable.
 Recording and coding data
 not diverted to irrelevant and
time consuming conversation.

40.  lose the spontaneity of natural
conversation.
 respondent’s views are minimized
and investigators own biases
 exploration of information limited.

41.  non-standardized interviews.
 Unstructured interview is a method
wherein the questions can be changed to
meet the respondent’s intelligence,
understanding, and beliefs.
 Questions changed according to response
 no preplanned schedule is used.

42.  open-ended questions, opportunity
to ask unplanned questions .
 explore the information from the
respondents.
 It increases the reliability and
credibility of research data.
 It facilitates the natural unobstructed
proceedings.

43.  less prone to interviewer’s
bias.
 Great opportunity to explore the
problem
 gathering information on
sensitive topics
 like divorce, social
discrimination, drug addiction,
etc.

44.  Data not comparable
 Time may be wasted in
unproductive conversation.
 No order or sequence in this
interview.
 Requires more skills of researcher.

45.  flexible method
 allows new questions to be brought
up during the interview, depending
upon the situation

46.  Interviewer prepares an interview guide
 informal list of topics and questions
 interviewer ask ques in different ways
from the different participants.
 Interview guide helps the researcher to
focus on the topics at hand without
constraining them to a particular
format.

47.  intensive and investigative interview
 study the respondent’s opinion and
emotions on the basis of interview
guide.
 requires more training and
interpersonal skills.
 aims to elicit unconscious & personal
feelings and emotions.

48.  unstructured group interview technique
 8-12 members brought together
 under the guidance of a trained
interviewer
 focus on a specific phenomenon.
 purpose is to gain insight from the
appropriate sample or target population.
 The researcher tries to focus his or her
attention on a particular
aspect of a problem.

49.  carefully planned discussion
 interviewer guides the discussion
according to written set of questions or
topics to be covered.
 special attention given to specific topics or
ideas.
 focus the discussion on the actual effects of
a given experience.
 focused on the subjective experience of the
respondent i.e.his or her opinion or
emotional response to the topic of
research.

50.  8-12 members
 Duration of the interview is 1.5-2 hours.
 All information including facial expressions
and body language is recorded.

51.  moderator to lead the discussion.
 permits to obtain details of personal reactions
to an experience.
 free from inflexibility of formal methods.
 interviewer is free to choose the sequence of
questions.

52.  Wide range of information collected.
 stimulates new ideas and creative concepts.
 One person’s comments may trigger a response
from another person, leading to in-depth
discussion on the topic.
 increases excitements in a group.
 Participants feel more comfortable to answer in
a group with similar interests.
 involves many participants at one time.

53.  chances of client and researcher bias.
 It is difficult to moderate.
 It is difficult to code, analyze and interpret.

54.  non personal method of data collection.
 consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself.
 used widely in industrial surveys particularly
in developed regions.

55.  More flexible and quick way.
 Less Cost & high response.
 Easy to Access through a telephone directory.
 No field, staff required
 wider coverage of sample is possible.

56.  Difficult to establish rapport between
respondent and interviewer.
 Surveys are limited to respondents who have
telephone facilities.
 Respondent’s characteristics, facial expressions,
and environment cannot be observed.
 Possibility of bias of interviewer is more.

57. Preparation for interview:-
 Fix up appointment
 Appearance and dress
 Familiarity with interview
schedule

58.  Researcher introduce himself or
herself to all respondents
 Identify the respondent by name.
 Choose setting with as little
distraction as possible.

59.  Explain purpose of interview.
 Address terms of confidentiality.
 Explain format of the interview.
 Indicate how long the interview
usually takes.
 Ask them if they have any questions.

60.  Begin conversation on general
topics.
 Develop confidence-building
 Understand the concerns of the
respondents

61.  Start the interview.
 Ask only one question at a time.
 Repeat a question if necessary.
 Make sure subject understands
the questions.

62.  Listen carefully Subjects answer.
 Observe the inverbal responses.
 Give sufficient time to answer the
questions.
 Do not show signs of surprise,
shock, or anger.

63.  Maintain a neutral attitude with
the respect to controversial issues.
 Take note of answers if vague or
ambiguous.
 Ask additional questions to follow
up clues .
 Do not hurry the interview.
 If silence is too prolonged,
introduce a stimulus.

64.  Record responses as they take place.
 Note-making.
 A tape recorder used to record
 Shorthand used to record responses.

65.  After the interview is over
 Polite leave of the respondent
taken
 Thanking him or her & saying
goodbye.

66.  Used to obtain information about
people’s feelings, perceptions, and
opinions.
 Allow more detailed questions to be
asked.
 High response rate

67.  Respondent’s own words recorded.
 Ambiguities can be clarified.
 Not influenced by others in the
group.
 Meaning of questions can be
clarified.

68.  Time-consuming & Costly
 Different interviews may
understand and translate interviews
in different ways.
 high degree chances of interview’s
biases.

69. RESEARCH
QUESTION
SAMPLE METHOD
What is the nature of
caregiving practice
among male and
female caregivers of
confused older people
in relation to gender
roles?(Opie1994)
28 female and male
caregivers from New
Zealand
Unstructured personal
interviews
What is the effect of
maternal activity
restriction for preterm
labor on the expectant
father? (May,1994)
30 men whose partners
had an activity-
restricted pregnancy
Focus group
interviews

70. RESEARCH
QUESTION
SAMPLE METHOD
What are the health
beliefs of Latina
women regarding the
causes of and
treatments for AIDS?
(Flaskerud &
Calvillo,1991)
59 low-income Latina
women
Focus group
interviews
What are the primary
barriers to recruiting
RNs in rural areas?
(Stratton, Dunkin,Juhl,
& Geller,1993)
556 directors of
nursing
Telephone interviews

71. RESEARCH
QUESTION
SAMPLE METHOD
What are the levels of
satisfaction with and
perceived barriers to
health care among
women in a Medicaid
prepaid plan versus
regular fee-for-service
Medicaid program?
(Reis,1990)
98 Medicaid clients Personal interviews

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Nursing Research principles & methods.5th
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Company;1995.
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Nursing Research & Statistics. Jalandhar: Pee
Vee publishers; 2009.
 Basanvanthappa BT. “Nursing Research”. 2nd
ed. New Delhi: jaypee brothers medical
publishers.
 Yadav M K .Textbook of nursing research ans
statistics with nursing theories and models.
Lotus publishers jalandhar 2014.