this ppt is very useful for all nursing medical or PG students in data collection because it include all aspects and content which is prescribed in syllabus. the contents are- definition of data, tool, methods, concept of data, sources of data collection, method and tools of data collection, types of methods and tools such as introduction, examples, definition, characteristics, uses, methods, formation, process, types, merits and demerits advantage and disadvantage of interview, questionnaire, attitude scale- Likert scale, semantic differential scales, visual analogous scale, observation, rating scale, checklist, biophysiological methods, validity- factors affecting validity, reliability, and procedure of data collection.

1. DATA COLLECTION
PRESENTED BY
PREETI KULSHRESTHA

2. DATA
• Data are the observable and measurable facts that
provide information about the phenomenon under study.
• TYPES- Primary data
Secondary data

3. TOOL
A research instrument /tool is a device used to
measure or collect data by researcher.

4. METHODS
Various steps used for gathering and analysing
data.

5. CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION
• The five ‘Ws’ of data collection: -
When, Who, Where, Whom, What, Facts.
• What data are to be collected ?
• Whom data are to be collected ?
• Who will collect data ?
• Where the data will be collected ?
• When data is to be collected ?

6. SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION
• PRIMARY SOURCES: -it provide first hand
information collected by the researcher directly from the
respondents or the situations which may be collected
through interviews, questioning, observation,
biochemical measurements, and psychosocial
measurement scales.

7. CONTD.
• SECONDARY SOURCES: -they are collected from either
internal or external sources.
• External sources (public documents): - it include
o published records – journals, magazines, newspapers,
census reports
o unpublished records – unpublished thesis, patient
records.
• Internal sources (private documents): - it includes

8. CONTD.
• Internal sources (private documents): - it includes –
oBiographies
oDiaries
oLetters
oMemories

9. METHODS & TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
• Methods of data collection: -
the various steps or strategies used for gathering and
analysing data in study are known as methods of data
collection.
• Technique of data collection: -
Means of gathering data with the use of specific tools which is
given in methods are known as techniques of data collection.
• Instruments/tool of data collection: -
A research instrument is a device used to measure and to
collect data by researcher.

10. TYPES OF METHODS & TOOLS
TYPES OF METHODS/TECHNIQUES TYPES OF TOOLS
• INTERVIEW
• QUESTIONING
• OBSERVATION
- Interview structured ( Structured format)
- Opinionnaire
- Questionnaire
- Opinionnaire
- Attitude scales (Likert scale)
- Visual analogue scale
- Rating scales
- Checklist
- Closed circuit TV (CCTV)
- Videotapes / films

11. TYPES OF METHODS & TOOLS
TYPES OF METHODS/TECHNIQUES TYPES OF TOOLS
• BIOPHYSIOLOGIC METHODS
• OTHER METHODS
- In-vivo biophysiological measurements
- In-vitro biophysiological measurements
- Projective techniques
- Q-shorts
- vignettes

12. INTERVIEW

13. INTRODUCTION
• The interview is a process of communication or
interaction in which the subjects or interviewee gives the
needed information verbally in a face to face situation.
• It is a popular way of gathering information in qualitative
research.
• It provides information about person’s feeling, perception,
and opinions.
• Interview requires high-level questioning skills and active
participation

14. CONTD.
• Most questions are open-ended in which Responses are
provided in notes.
• Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering
information from illiterate or less educated respondents.
• It is superior to other data – gathering methods. Once
rapport is established even confidential information can
be obtained.

15. DEFINITION
• A method of data collection in which one person
(interviewer) ask the question from another person
(respondent) conducted either face to face or telephonically.
• Interview is a two-way systemic conversation between an
informant and an investigator.

16. CHARACTERISTICS
• Participants, interviewer, and respondents are strangers.
• Not necessarily be face to face because it can be conducted over
telephone also.
• It is not a standardized process , it can be modified according to
situations.
• It is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions.
• Investigator records information

17. INTERVIEWING PROCESS
Preparation
Preinterview
introduction
Developing
rapport
Carrying the
interview
forward
Recording the
interview
Closing the
interview

18. TYPES
• Structured interview (directive interview)
• Unstructured interview (Non directive interview)
• Semi structured interview
• In – depth interview
• Focused group interview
• Telephone interview

19. Structured interview (directive interview)
.
• It is also known as standardized interviews.
• It is completely planned.
• Question are listed in the order in which they are to
be answered.
• Interviewers are not permitted to change the specific
wording.

20. Characteristics:
oIt has a limited set of questions.
oInterview is presented with exactly the same
questions in same order.
oIt increases the reliability and credibility of data.

21. .
Merits
oData are easily comparable
oRecording is easy
oAttention is not diverted
oLess time-consuming
conversation
Demerits
oLose the spontaneity of
natural conversation
oRespondent’s views are
minimized
oScope of exploration is
limited.

22. Unstructured interview (Nondirective interview)
.
• It is also known as nonstandardized interviews.
• No planned schedule is used.
• Questions can be changed to meet the respondent's
intelligence, understanding and beliefs.
• The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk
freely

23. Characteristics:
oIt has open-ended questions.
oThe aim is to explore the information from the
respondents.
oIt increases the reliability and credibility of research
data.

24. .
Merits
oLess prone to interviewer’s
bias.
oProvide greater opportunity
to explore the problem in
unrestricted response.
oUseful for gathering
information on sensitive
topics like divorce, social
discrimination, drug
addiction etc…
Demerits
oIt is not comparable to the
data.
oTime may be wasted
oThere is no order or
sequence
oThis requires more skills

25. Semi structured interview.
It is a flexible method that allows new questions to be brought
up during the interview, depending upon the situation during
the interview.

26. Characteristics:
oInterviewer prepares an interview guide, which is an
informal list of topics and questions.
oInterview guide helps the researcher to focus on the
topics.

27. In – depth interview.
• This is investigative interview.
• This requires more training and interpersonal skills
• It encourage free expressions

28. Focused Group Interview.
• It is an unstructured group interview.
• The researcher tries to focus his/her attention on a particular
aspect of a problem.
• It is a carefully planned discussion

29. Characteristics:
oIt consists of 6-10 members homogenous in terms of
demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.
oDuration is 1.5-2 hrs.
oAll information including facial expressions and body
language is recorded.
oIt is free from inflexibility of formal methods.

30. .
Merits
oWide range of information is
collected.
oIt stimulates new ideas and
creative concepts.
oIn –depth discussion on the
topic.
oParticipants feel more
comfortable in a group
oIt involves many participants
at one time.
Demerits
oChances of client and
researcher bias
oDifficult to code, analyze and
interpret
oIt is not a representative of
general population.

31. Telephone Interview.
• It is nonpersonal method of data collection
• There is no interaction by face to face.
• It is used widely industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.

32. .
Merits
oIt is more flexible and a
quick way
oCost is relatively less
oRate of response is high
oAccess to respondent is easy
oNo field staff is required
Demerits
oDifficult to establish a rapport
between respondent between
respondent and the interviewer.
oSurveys are limited to
respondents having telephone
facilities.
orespondent’s characteristics,
facial expression, and
environment can not be
observed.
oPossibility of bias is more.

33. Advantages
• It is useful to obtain information about people’s
feeling, perception, and opinions.
• High-response rate is achieved.
• Interviews are not influenced by other in the group.

34. Disadvantages
• Time - consuming
• Costly
• High degree chances of interview’s biases.

35. QUESTIONNAIRE

36. DEFINITION
• A instrument is called a questionnaire or sometimes a
self-administered questionnaire (SAQ), usually in a
paper and pencil format.

37. Types
• Open-Format questions
• Closed – Format questions
- Dichotomous questions: - to make a choice between two
responses, such as yes/no or male/female.
E.g. Q. Have you ever been hospitalized?
(a) Yes (b) No

38. - Multiple choice questions: - to make a choice between more
than two responses alternatives.
E.g. Q. Which of the following disease is sexually transmitted?
(a) Diabetes mellitus (b) Hypothyroidism
(c) Syphilis (d) Hypertension

39. - Rank order questions: - to rank their responses from most
favourable to least favourable.
E.g. Q. What according to you is most important for your life ?
(a) Money (b) Education
(c) Family (d) Health

40. - Rating questions: - to provide rating to a specific element on
a scale selecting among the points from poor to good.
E.g. Q. How do you rank the education quality in India ?
1 2 3 4
Good Fair Poor Very poor

41. - Importance questions: - to rate the importance of a particular
issue on a rating scale of 1-5.
E.g. Q. Exercising every day is …… for the health.
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely
important
Very important Somewhat
important
Not very
important
Not at all
important

42. - Likert questions: - to assess how strongly the respondent
agrees with a particular statement.
E.g. Q. Is this community a good place to raise children ?
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly disagree

43. Methods of questionnaire administration
• Postal
• Phone
• Electronic

44. Formation of questionnaire
• Appearance : question should be neat and well organized. All
the parts or section should be numbered in sequence and in
proper order.
• Language: it should be according to understanding level of
subjects. there should not be any grammatical or spelling
mistake.

45. • Cover letter, information sheet and instruction: there should
be cover letter informing the subjects about the researcher ,
type of study and method of data collection.
There should be information sheet which gives detail
information about the study , schedule and procedure of data
collection. A consent form should be filled and signed by the
study subjects.
adequate instruction are also provided.

46. • Questions/items in questionnaire: it should be very clear and
simple and readable by subjects. Open ended questions
should be avoided.
• Length of questionnaire: it should not be too long to take a
lot of time to complete. Maximum number of items can be 25-
30 items and subject should be able to fill it within 30 min.
• It should generally start with demographic profile of
subjects.
• Use positive statement.

47. Advantages
• Cost-effective
• Easy to analyse
• Require less time and energy to administer
• Reduce bias
• Used for large sample size

48. Disadvantages
• Not suitable for all such as children, blinds, illiterates.
• Low response rate.
• Superficial information

49. ATTITUDE SCALES /
COMPOSITE SCALES

50. DEFINITION
• Composite scales are socio-psychologic measurements
directed towards quantifying the qualitative attributes, such
as feelings, attitudes, self-concepts, perception, beliefs, etc.
• These are rating scales which are used to assess the
attitudes or feelings of self–concepts. They show the person’s
positive or negative attitude towards any concept.
• Some composite scales are- Likert scales, semantic
differential scale.

51. LIKERT SCALES
• INTRODUCTION:
Likert scale was named after a psychologist Rensis
Likert, who developed it in 1932.likert scale is one of the most
commonly used scaling techniques.
it was developed to measure the attitudes, values and
feelings of people. This scale was developed as a five-point scale
(strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly
disagree) but now Likert scale with 4 points (strongly agree,
moderately agree, disagree and uncertain) to seven points (very
strongly agree, strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree,
strongly disagree and very strongly disagree)

52. Contd.
• DEFINITION
Likert scale is a composite measurement scale used
to measure attitude, values, and feelings of the people that
involve summation of scores on the set of positive and
negative declarative statements.

53. Contd.
• USES
- To measure the attitudes, values and feelings of the people
about specific concepts such as situations, people, places,
objects, programmes, practices, policies.
- To have quantified measurement of the qualitative
attributes of people, such as feelings, values and attitudes.

54. Contd.
• CHARACTERISTICS
- Psychologic measurement tool
- Illustrative in nature
- Neutral statement
- Bipolar scaling method
- Number of scaling categories

55. Contd.
• ADVANTAGES
- Easy to construct this scale
- More reliable and valid tool to measure the pschosocial
variables
- Easy to administer
- Less time-consuming

56. Contd.
• DISADVANTAGE
- Respondents may feel forced to answer
- Respondents may not be fully assessed due to researcher’s
preplanned statements and categories.

57. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
SCALES
• INTRODUCTION:
SDS is most effective and most widely used technique
nowadays. In 1967, Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum introduced
this method for the first time in their book, The Measurement
of Meaning to measure the assessment of attitude.
This comprises adjective pairs such as beneficial-harmful,
good-bad etc. which are mentioned on the two ends of a bipolar
scale.

58. Contd.
• USES
- Patient satisfaction survey
- Customer satisfaction survey
- Employee survey
- Marketing survey
- Operational research
- Personality measurements
- Clinical psychology

59. Contd.
• ADVANTAGES
- It is a convenient method
- Easy to administer
- Provides reasonable valid and reliable quantitative data.

60. Contd.
• DISADVANTAGE
- It is difficult to select the concepts
- It is time – consuming to find adjective pairs.

61. VISUAL ANALOGOUS
SCALE

62. INTRODUCTION
It is widely used psychomotor response scale which is used
to measure certain sensations and feeling such as pain,
discomfort, anxiety, alertness, quality of sleep, severity of
clinical symptoms and attitude towards environmental
conditions.
pain worst pain ever

63. USES
• To measure the level of pain, anxiety, mood.
• To measure the alertness, quality of sleep, severity of clinical
symptoms, functional ability and attitude towards
environmental conditions.
• To determine the drug’s effect on the patients.

64. Advantages
• Reliable and valid tool

65. Disadvantages
• It can not be used for comparing a group of individuals at the
same time.

66. OBSERVATIONS

67. Introduction
• Observation is a way of gathering data by watching
behaviour, events.
• It can be used to gather such information as
characteristics and conditions of individual, verbal and
non-verbal communication etc.

68. Definition
It is a two part process to collect data for study that
includes an observer (someone who is observing) and the
observed (there is something to observe).

69. Uses
• To measure an ongoing process
• To measure an individual behaviour
• To know about a physical setting
• It uses where other methods are not possible.

70. Types
• Structured observation: researcher prepares a structured or semi
structured tool in advance. It is generally carried out by using
following tools-
- Checklist
- Rating scale
• Unstructured observation: it is used in qualitative studies, where
observation is made with minimally structured tool. These tool are_
- Field diary
- Video recording
- Field notes.

71. • Participants observation: historical and ethnographical researches
conducted with participant observation. Where observer may live or
work in field and actively participate in ongoing activities . Tools are _
- logbook
- Field notes.
- Field diary
- Tape
- Video recording
• Non participants observation: the observer works as an eavesdropper
(secretly listening or observing). this method possesses ethical
problems
- Secretly listening or observing

72. Advantages
• Collect data where an activity or event is occur.
• Directly allows what people do rather than what people tell

73. Disadvantages
• Observer’s bias
• Time- consuming
• expensive

74. RATING SCALE

75. Introduction
Rating is the term used to express the opinion or
judgement regarding some performance of a person,
object, situation or character.

76. Definition
Rating scale is a tool in which the one person simply
checks off another person’s level of performance. Rating
scale could be three-point, five-point, seven-point or more
points rating scale

77. Types
• Graphic rating scale: in this scale, performance is printed
horizontally at various points from lowest to highest.
E.g. How much are you satisfied with noise control in your
ward?
least most

78. • Descriptive rating scale: this type of rating scales does not
use number, but divide the assessment into series of verbal
phrases to indicate the level of performance.
E.g. judge the level of performance of nursing personnel in
MICU.
Level of clinical performance
NSG PERSONNEL IN A WARD Very active Active Moderately active Passive
1. Amandeep
2. Jasveen
3. Tara
4. Kirandeep

79. • Numerical rating scale: it divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed
number of points. In these scales, each statement is generally
assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 10 or even more.
E.g. pain assessment numerical scale.
No pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Worst pain

80. • Comparative rating scale: in this type of rating scales, the
researcher makes a judgment about an attribute of a person
by comparing it with another person.

81. Characteristics
Clarity
Relevance
Variety
Objectivity
uniqueness

82. Advantages
• Easy to administer and score the measured attribute.
• It has wide range of application in nursing research
• Graphic rating scale is easier to make.
• Less time consuming
• Easily used for a large group
• Used for quantitative methods.

83. Disadvantages
• May become unscientific
• May become unreliable

84. CHECKLIST

85. Introduction
It is one of the most commonly used instruments for
performance evaluation. It consists of a listing of steps,
activities and behaviours the observer records when it
occurs.

86. EXAMPLE
Place for (√) tick mark
Sr. No. Behaviour Yes No Remarks
1. Explains procedure
2. Collect necessary equipment
3. Arrange equipment for convenient use
4. Prepare patient
5. Washes hand
6. Maintains aseptic technique
7. Removes dressing
8. Observes condition of wound
9. Cleans wound
10. Applies dressing
11. Removes equipment
12. Makes patient comfortable
13. Complete charting
14. Take care of equipment

87. Definition
A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list
of expected items of performance which are checked by a
researcher for their presence or absence.

88. Characteristics
• Observe one respondent at one time.
• Observe should be trained.
• Use only carefully prepared checklist to avoid more
complex characteristics.
• Use checklist only in case of calculating a particular
characteristics.

89. Advantages
• It allow inter-individual comparisons
• It is a simple method
• It is useful in evaluating learning activities
• It has objectivity
• Decreases the chances of error.

90. Disadvantages
• Does not indicate quality of performance
• Only a limited component of clinical performance cane be
evaluated
• It has a limited use in qualitative research
• degree of accuracy can not be assessed

91. BIOPHYSIOLOGIC
METHODS

92. Definition
‘Biophysiological method involves the collection of
biophysiological data from subjects by using the
specialized equipment to determine biological and
physical status of subjects.’
E.g. BP measurement by using sphygmomanometer and
stethoscope.

93. Purposes
• To study basic physiologic process
• To study physiologic outcome of nursing care
• To evaluate nursing intervention

94. Types
In-vivo
biophysiological
methods
In-vitro
biophysiological
methods

95. In-vivo biophysiological methods
• Measurement are directly performed to measure
processes occurring internally within living organisms
through medical or surgical instruments.
E.g. TPR, BP monitoring.

96. In-vitro biophysiological methods
• Measurements are carried out outside the organism or
study subject by using specialized equipment.
• These measurements are-
oRadiologic measurements
oBiochemical measurements
oMicrobiologic measurements
oCytologic measurements

97. Advantages
• Biophysiological measures are relatively more accurate and
errorless. E.g. Pulse oxymeter for oxygen saturation.
• Biophysiological measures are more objective in nature.
• Provide valid measures for targeted variables. E.g.
thermometer will only record temperature and not BP.
• Biophysiological measures are easily available in hospital
settings.

98. Disadvantages
• Tools are expensive
• Required skills, knowledge and experience for using the tools.
• Tools may cause fear and anxiety among participants.
• Some tools have harmful effect on the participants such as X-
Ray

99. VALIDITY

100. Introduction
It refers to the degree to which an instrument measures
what it is supposed to be measuring.

101. Definition
Validity refers to an instrument or test actually what
it is supposed to be testing.
-Treece and Treece

102. Types
Face
validity
Content
validity
Criterion
validity
Construc
t validity

103. Face validity
• It involves an overall look of an instrument or tool.
• This aspect of validity refers to the face value or the outlook
of an instrument.
• It does not provide any guarantee about the appropriateness
and completeness of a research tool with its content,
construct, and measurement tool
• It is the weakest and simplest form of validity.

104. Content validity
• The extent to which the measurement covers all aspects of
the concept being measured.
• E.g. a researcher aims to measure English language ability
of college level students. Researcher develop a test which
contains reading, writing and speaking components, but no
listening component.

105. Criterion validity
• The extent to which the results of one toll correlate with
another accepted tool or outcome.
• Subtypes: Concurrent validity
Predictive validity
Concurrent validity: Comparison made at the same time.
E.g. comparing a new anxiety scale to an existing.
Predictive validity: Ability of the tool to predict future
outcomes.
E.g. NEET score predicting success in medical college.

106. Construct validity
• In research, construct means a theme, idea, or a concept
that are not directly measurable.
• It is the degree to which an instrument measures a
construct which it is intended to measure.
• E.g. a researcher aims to measure English language
ability of college level students. Researcher develop a test
which contains reading, writing and speaking
components, but no listening component.

107. Validity of research design
External validity
Internal validity

108. Factors that influence validity if research design
INTERNAL :
1. History
2. Selection
3. Maturation
4. Testing
5. Mortality
6. Frequent change of observer and instruments

109. Factors that influence validity if research design
EXTERNAL :
1. Sample size
2. Sampling technique
3. Sampling criteria
4. Researcher’s effect
5. Measurement effect

110. RELIABILITY

111. Definition
Reliability is the degree of consistency and accuracy
with which an instrument measures the attribute for
which it is designed to measure.

112. Types/Component
Stability
Internal
consistency
Equivalence
reliability

113. Stability reliability
• It means research instrument provides same results when
used for two or more times.
• It is very easy method
• It is also known as reliability of test-retest function.
• It supposed that there will be no change in the quality
• It is used for questionnaire , observation, checklist, rating
scales.
• It has one basic problem that there are many traits that may
change with time, such as attitude, behaviour, mood
knowledge, satisfaction, physical condition

114. Internal consistency reliability
• It is also called homogeneity.
• It ensures that all the subparts of a research instrument
measure the same characteristics.
• This can be achieved by split half method.

115. Equivalence reliability
• It is also called interrater or interobserver reliability.
• This aspect reliability is estimated when a researcher is
testing the reliability of a tool, which is used by two
different observers to observe a single phenomenon
independently and simultaneously.

116. PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLECTION
• Defining the data to be collected:- researcher must identify
the nature of data to be collected whether they are quantitative or
qualitative in nature.
• Selecting appropriate methods of data collection:- there
are different methods of data collection such as observation,
interview, questionnaire. So researcher has to select most suitable
methods of data collection.
• Selecting data collection instruments/tools:- researcher has
to develop new tools with the help of literature review and experts.

117. Contd.
• Try-out of data collection tools:- to check the validity and
reliability of tools and to identify practical difficulties may be faced in
data collection.
• Developing data collection supportive forms:- researcher
prepares the supportive forms needed for data collection such as
informed consent, administrative permission letters, contact details of
participants.
• Training of data collectors:- generally, a training manual is used
for training of data collectors, which includes background information
of study (introduction, aims, objectives, hypotheses, methodology), all
copies of data collection tools and other supportive forms

118. Contd.
• Inform the local authority for data collection and obtain
due permission:- before actual data collection begins, researcher
must inform the local authority in command and obtain their
permission for data collection.
• Data collection:- this is the final step in the data procedure in
which data are carefully collected. So that, at the end, data will be
ready for analysis without any delay or problem.