2. Collection of Primary Data
Primary data are those which are
collected afresh and for the first
time and thus happen to be
original in character and known
as Primary data.
There are several methods of
collecting primary data:
◦ Observation
◦ Interview
◦ Through Questionnaire
◦ Through Schedules
4. Observation
Observational methods may be:
Structured or unstructured
In structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail
what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be
recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined
and the information needed is specified.
In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all
aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is
appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated
precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key
components of the problem and to develop hypotheses.
5. Observation
Disguised or undisguised
In disguised observation, respondents are unaware they are
being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is
achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment
or people disguised as shoppers.
In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are
being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect –
people behave differently when being observed.
6. Observation
Uncontrolled or controlled
Uncontrolled observation involves observing behavior as it
takes place in the environment, for example, eating
hamburgers in a fast food outlet.
In controlled observation, the respondents‟ behavior is
observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food
tasting session.
Non-participant or Participant
The observer does not normally question or communicate with
the people being observed. He or she does not participate.
In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part
of the group that is being investigated.
7. Interview
Interviewing is a technique
that is primarily used to gain
an understanding of the
underlying reason and
motivation for people‟s
attitudes, preferences or
behavior.
Interviews can be personal
as well as telephonic
interview.
9. Interview
Personal interview
Advantages:
Serious approach by respondent resulting
in accurate information.
Good response rate.
Completed and immediate.
Possible in-depth questions.
Interviewer in control and can give help if
there is a problem.
Can investigate motives and feelings.
Can use recording equipment.
Characteristics of respondent assessed –
tone of voice, facial
expression, hesitation, etc.
If one interviewer used, uniformity of
approach.
Disadvantages:
Need to set up interviews.
Time consuming.
Geographic limitations.
Can be expensive.
Normally need a set of questions.
Respondent bias – tendency to please or
impress, create false personal image, or
end interview quickly.
Embarrassment possible if personal
questions.
If many interviewers, training required.
10. Interview
Types of Personal interview:
Structured
Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.
Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.
Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly thought provoking.
Semi-structured
The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the
respondent to express him or herself at length.
Unstructured
This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general
question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The
interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview
being determined by the respondent‟s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for
elaboration – „Why do you say that?‟ or, „That‟s interesting, tell me more‟ or, „Would
you like to add anything else?‟ being typical probes.
11. Interview
Telephone interview
This is an alternative form of
interview to the
personal, face-to-face
interview.
This method of collecting
information consists in
contacting respondents on
telephone itself.
12. Interview
Disadvantages:
Questionnaire required.
Not everyone has a telephone.
Repeat calls are inevitable –
average 2.5 calls to get someone.
Time is wasted.
Straightforward questions are
required.
Respondent has little time to think.
Cannot use visual aids.
Can cause irritation.
Good telephone manner is
required.
Telephone interview
Advantages:
Relatively cheap.
Quick.
Can cover reasonably large
numbers of people or
organizations.
Wide geographic coverage.
High response rate – keep going
till the required number.
No waiting.
Spontaneous response.
Help can be given to the
respondent.
Can tape answers.
13. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a document
that contains a set of questions
printed or typed in a proper
sequence.
The questionnaire is sent to
each individual who is supposed
to answer it.
Questionnaires are a popular
means of collecting data, but are
difficult to design and often
require many rewrites before an
acceptable questionnaire is
produced.
14. Questionnaire
Advantages:
Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
Can cover a large number of people
or organizations.
Wide geographic coverage.
Relatively cheap.
No prior arrangements are needed.
Avoids embarrassment on the part of
the respondent.
As respondents are allowed to
answer the questions according to
their own views and
understanding, the technique of data
collection is non-partial.
Enough time to answer the
questions.
Disadvantages:
Time consuming.
Questions have to be relatively
simple.
Time delay whilst waiting for
responses to be returned.
Assumes no literacy problems.
No control over who completes
it.
Not possible to give assistance if
required.
Problems with incomplete
questionnaires.
Replies not spontaneous and
independent of each other.
15. Questionnaire
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE:
Researcher should note the following with regard to these
three main aspects of a questionnaire: General form, Question
Sequence, Question formulation and wording.
Types the Questions :
A) Open ended Questions
B) Closed ended Questions
• Fill in the blank questions
• Dichotomous Questions
• Ranking scale questions
• Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
• Rating scale questions
16. Schedule Method
A Schedule is a
questionnaire containing a
set of questions that are
required to be answered to
collect the data about a
particular item.
A schedule generally takes
place face- to –face manner.
17. Schedule Method
Disadvantages
Costly
Time- consuming method.
This method requires well-
trained and experienced field
workers to take the interview of
the respondents.
Sometimes, the respondents
may not be able to tell certain
facts due to the personal
presence of some researchers
at the work.
Advantages
Response rate is high.
Researcher is always there to
help the respondents
Personal contact between the
researcher and the
respondents.
Easy for the researcher to
detect and rectify the defects in
the schedule.
18. Difference between Questionnaire
and Schedule.
Questionnaire is generally sent
through mail to the informants.
Relatively cheaper, no field staff
required.
Non- response is usually high.
Respondent is unknown.
Slow process .
Personal contact is not possible.
Respondent needs to be literate.
Wide geographic coverage.
Risk of collecting incomplete and
wrong information is higher.
Success of Questionnaire lies more
on the quality of the Questionnaire.
The schedule is generally filled out by the
research workers/ enumerators
Relatively expensive, required to appoint
enumerators and train them.
Non- response is generally very low.
Respondent is known.
Collected well in time.
Personal contact is established.
Respondent need not be literate.
Difficulty in sending enumerators over a
relatively wider area.
Information collected through schedules is
relatively more accurate.
Success of Questionnaire lies more on
the honesty and competence of
enumerators.
19. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
These are already available i.e. they refer to
the data which have already been collected
and analyzed by someone else.
Secondary data may either be published or
unpublished data.
Published data is available in Publications of
the central, state and local governments, trade
journals, books, newspapers, reports etc.
Researcher must be very careful in using
secondary data, because the data available
may be sometimes unsuitable.
21. Analysis of Data
Editing
Coding
Data Entry
Validation
Tabulation
Unwanted or insignificant data is filtered out & only the necessary or important
information is retained. Two- levels:
•Micro- editing- filter errors in data by checking individual entries.
•Macro- editing- detect errors in data but by analysis of aggregate data.
(calculated through mean, median etc. Comparison of the analysis with
secondary data, ensures consistency in data.)
Process of aligning data by grouping it into a particular category so that the
researchers can understand and analyze it easily before storing it in the
computer.
Entering of data onto the software that does tabulation.
Data tabulation can be done with the help of the software like SPSS, wincross
etc. Final result is produced which is ready for analysis.
Also called as data cleaning. Purpose is to ensure its validity.
22. Interpretation of Data
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inference from the
collected facts after an analytical study.
It is only through interpretation the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underline his findings.
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e. to
build a theory.
The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further research.
24. RESEARCH REPORT
A research report is:
a written document or oral
presentation based on a
written document that
communicates the purpose,
scope, objective(s),
hypotheses, methodology,
findings, limitations and
finally, recommendations of a
research project to others.
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25. RESEARCH REPORT
The last stage of a marketing research process.
It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the
research process.
The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read
the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own
benefit.
Any research report contains:
◦ descriptions on methodology,
◦ results obtained,
◦ and recommendations made.
The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience.
Before writing the report
◦ the researcher must know his or her audience;
◦ he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition,
background and interests of the target readers.
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26. Importance of Reports
They are the tangible products of the research effort.
Management decisions are guided by the report.
The involvement of many marketing managers in the project
is limited to the written report.
Management's decision to undertake marketing research in
the future or to use the particular research supplier again will
be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the report.
27. Importance of Reports
Reports are like another form to communicate effectively. They are
also a way to analyze ones knowledge and skills.
It facilitates in decision making in future references.
The report plays the great role in the planning and organization of
the business house. But it is not the planning and organization of
the business alone which come under the review of a report; it is the
whole of business which benefits by it. When the industry is to be
expanded, scores of reports have to be prepared and gone through
before the board of directors can arrive at a safe decision.
Often, even the routine direction of administrative and
manufacturing units; require the assistance of reports whenever
serious problems crop up.
28. Steps in report writing
Logical Analysis of the subject matter
Preparation of the final outline
Preparation of the rough draft
Rewriting & polishing of the rough draft
Preparation of the final bibliography
Writing the final draft
29. Report Layout
The Letter of Transmittal:
The letter of transmittal introduces the purpose and content of the
report to the principal reader, usually (but not always) the person
who requested the report. The letter is attached to the report or
simply placed on top of it. Some organizations prefer a memo
format if the report is intra-organizational.
Title Page:
Briefly introduces the reader to the report. It consists of:
◦ Name of report (all caps)
◦ Name, title, organization of receiver
◦ Author‟s name, title, organization
◦ Date submitted
30. Report Layout
The Abstract:
An abstract is a brief technical summary (200 words) of the report.
The abstract of a report is directed primarily to readers who are
familiar with the technical subject and need to know whether to read
the full report.
Table of Contents:
Shows page numbers where each report heading appears. Page
numbers are connected with leaders (spaced dots). No matter how
well organized the report itself may be, a table of contents that does
not make the structure clear will be ineffective.
31. Report Layout
The APPENDIX:
Appendixes provide a convenient way to convey information
that is too bulky to be presented in the body or that will be of
interest to only a small number of the report‟s readers.
Maps, large technical diagrams or
charts, computations, computer printouts, test data, and texts
of supporting documents are usually found in appendixes.
The List of Illustrations:
A list of illustrations is a table of contents for the figures and
tables of a report.
32. Report Layout
Introduction:
Prepares the reader for easier comprehension. Helps the reader
understand the purpose of the report. The introduction:
◦ Explains problems motivating report
◦ Describes its background and significance
◦ Clarifies scope and limitations of report
◦ Describes data sources, methods, key terms loses by previewing report‟s
organization
Body- Design work / Final design of the report:
The body:
◦ Discusses, analyzes, interprets research findings
◦ Arranges findings in logical segments following outline
◦ Uses clear, descriptive headings
33. Report Layout
Conclusion:
◦ Explains findings in relation to original problem
◦ Summarizes the entire work
◦ Recommendations [if any]
Executive Summary:
◦ One of most important parts of report
◦ Synopsis (overview) of report
References:
◦ Lists all references in section called “Works Cited” or “References”
◦ Include all text, online, and live sources
34. Types of Research Report
Two types of reports:-
◦ Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of
researchers, research managers or other people familiar
with and interested in the technicalities such as research
design, sampling methods, statistical details etc.,
◦ Popular Report: suitable for: a more general audience,
interested mainly in the research findings as it is non-
technical in nature.
The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid
reading and understanding of the research findings and
recommendations.
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