This document discusses various methods and tools for data collection. It defines data collection methods as systematic ways of collecting information about subjects of study, and data collection tools as instruments used to gather information. The main methods covered are using available records, interviews, observations, questionnaires, scales and physiological measurements. Specific tools are also defined for each method. Sources of bias and ethical considerations in data collection are also addressed.

1. Method and Tools
of data collection
By / MahmoudShaqria
‫شقريه‬ ‫محمد‬ ‫محمود‬

2. 1. Define the process of data collection.
2. Differentiate between data collection methods, tools.
3. Physiological and biological measuring.
4. Observational methods.
5. Interviews.
6. Questionnaires.
7. Variable data and records.
8. Scales.
9. Identify sources of bias in data collection.
10. Mention ethical consideration in data collection.
11. Critique data collection method.

3. Definition: is the process of acquiring the subjects and collecting
the data for the study.
.
Process of data collection:
1-obtaining subjects.
2-training data collectors.
3-collecting data in a consistent way.
4-maintaining research controls.
5-protecting the integrity (or validity ) of the study.
6-solving problems that threaten to disrupt
he stud

4. DATA COLLECTION METHOD:
Definition: Is a systematic collecting
information about our objects of study
and about the setting in which they
occur.
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS:
Definition: ARE INSTRUMENTS USED TO
COLLECT INFORMATION FOR THE STUDY.

5. Differentiate between data collection methods and data collection
tools
Methods Tools
Using available information
Using physiological and biological
measurement
Observing
Interviewing.
Administering written questionnaires.
Checklist, data complication forms
Physiological and biological measurement
Eye, pen, paper, watch, scalp, microscope,
camera, checklist
Interviews schedule, checklist,
questionnaire, tap recorder.
Questionnaire
.

6. Using Available Data and Records
There is a large part of data collected by others, locating sources
and reviewing information is good starting point for any data collection
effort.
 To retrieve data from available sources, the researcher will have to design
an instrument such as checklist or compilation sheet.
 Analysis of health information system data, census data, unpublished
reports and publications in archives and libraries or in offices at the various
levels of health and health related services may be a study in itself.
For Example: Records, are completion of writings and figures that the
individual's have collected.
For Example: Analysis of the information routinely collected by health
facilities can be useful for identifying problems in certain interventions or in the
flow of drug supply or to identify the increase incidence of certain disease.

7. Advantages:
Inexpensive because data are already there.
Permit examination of the past trends.
Easy to catch.
Saving time.
Free from bias.
Disadvantages:
Data are not always easily accessible.
Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise.
Information may be incomplete.
No one can be sure of the condition under which information is
obtained.

8. Interviewing:
 Is a method which involves oral questioning of the respondent either
individually or as a group. The answer of the questions during
interview can be recorded by writing them down during the interview
or immediately after the interview to avoid for getting, or by tape
recording the response.
 Is data collection method that involves:
 Oral questioning of respondents either individually or as a group.
 Verbal communication between the researcher and the subject during
which information is provided to the researcher commonly is used in
qualitative and descriptive studies.

9. Interview can be conducted by varying
degree of flexibility
1. High Degree of Flexibility “unstructured”
 In which the content is completely controlled by the subject.
 May be initiated by asking aboard question such as “describe for me
your experience with …..”.
 After that the role of interviewer is to encourage the subject to
continue taking, sing technique such as nodding the head.
Advantages of unstructured interviews:
Permits collection of in-depth information and exploration of spontaneous
remarks by respondents.
Disadvantages of unstructured interviews:
 The interviewer may inabluertently influence the respondents.
 Open ended data are difficult to analyze.

10. Note:
 This interviews used when the researcher has yet little understanding of the problem.
 Frequently applied in exploratory studies, case studies.
 May be called “Non standardized”, that interviewers have freedom to conduct each
interview in the most appropriate manner for the situation, they are not held to a
specific questions.
2. Low Degree of Flexibility “structured”
 Possible responses to questions carefully designed by the researcher.
 The interviewer using a questionnaire with a fixed list of questions in a
standard sequence that have mainly fixed or prectaegorized answers.
Advantages
Easy to analyze.
Disadvantages
Important information may be missed because spontaneous remarks by
respondents are usually recorded or explored.

11. Note:
 Useful when the researcher relatively knowledgeable or the number of
respondents being interviewed is relatively large.
 It may be called “standardized”, that in which the interviewer aren’t
permitted to change specific wording of the interview question schedule,
they must try to conduct each interview in the same manner.
3. Semi Standardized Interview:
In which the interviewer required to ask a number of specific
question but beyond these they are free to probe as they choose.

12. Advantages of Interviews:
Suitable for use with illiterates.
Permits clarification of questions.
Higher response rate than written questionnaires.
Disadvantages of Interviews:
The presence of interviews can influence responses.
Reports of event, may be less complete than information gained from
observations.
Limited sample size.
Subject bias always a threat t the validity of the findings.
Inconsistency in data collection from one subject to another.

13. Observational Method:
 Determining how subjects behave under certain conditions.
 Observation is a method involves systematically selecting, watching and
recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects, or
phenomena.
 It is a two-part process, 1. someone is observing and 2. there is something to
b e observed.
 Observation of human behavior is a much used data collection technique.
 It can be undertaken in different ways.

14. Advantages of Observation:
1. Provide large quantities of data with relative case.
2. Important technique for studying human behavior.
3. Inexpensive to use.
4. Subjects are usually available, other research technique are
dependent on questionnaire returns, volunteers for experiment,
and so on, which limit the quantity of data.
5. Is most open to using recording devices such as tape records and
cameras.
6. Allow the researcher to view the complete situation .it develop
and also affords the inclusion of a sequence of events.
7. Can begun or stopped at any time.
8. Evaluating or appraising the actions of individuals.

15. Disadvantages of Observation:
1. The observers bias may occur observer watching only what
interested for him and the researcher’s culture background and
personal interpretation.
2. The presence of an observer gins the subject(s) a quality normally
absent, it also creates an artificial situation.
3. The time and duration of an event cannot be predicted usually,
the observer must wait until an event happens. Therefore, it is
difficulty to know when to be present to observe key events.
4. Extensive training is necessary.
5. Results may be unreliable be cause different observers may not
see and record a particular event in the same manner.

16. Physiological and Biological Measurement:
Used with studies that measures the effects of physical care practices .
Advantages:
 Attention to detail ,objectivity, precision and sensitivity.
 Focus in outcome of nursing care.
Disadvantages:
 Not easy to make.
 Some instruments are not available or expensive.

17. Questionnaires:
Is a printed self-report form designed to elicit information
through writer or verbal responses of the subject.
1-Sending the questions y mail with clear instructions on how to
answer the questions and asking for mailed responses.
2-Gathering all or a part of people (respondents) in one place at
one time, giving oral or written instructions on how to answer
and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaire.
3-Hand delivery of the questionnaire to the respondents and
collecting them later.
A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways for
example:-

18. Types of Questions:
 Open-ended question.
 Closed question.
Permit free responses that should be recorded in the
respondent's own words, the respondents is not given any possible
answers to choose from.
1. Open-ended Question:
Broad question: suggest a topic and requires the respondent to
answer from his point of view for example: in your opinion, w hat’s
the most common health care problem?
Open-ended Question may be:

19. Narrow Question: allows only limited flexibility of responding for
example: list the three main satisfaction that your nursing profession
has provided?
This type of question (open ended question) is useful for obtaining
information on:
1-Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar.
2-Opinions attitude, suggestion of informant.
3-Sensitive issue.
Advantages of Open-ended
Questions:
1-Providing available new insight into the problem.
2-Information provided spontaneously is likely to be more valid than
answers suggested in options from which the informant must choose.
3-Information provided in the respondent's own words may be useful as
example or illustrations that add interest to the final repost.

20. Disadvantages of Open-ended Questions:
1-Skilled interviewers are needed to get the discussion started and focused
in relevant issues and to record all important information.
2-Analysis is time consuming and require experience.
Sometimes called forced-choice questions, offers a list of the
possible options or answers from which the respondent must
choose.
 When we designing a closed question we must try to:
1-Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
2-Keep the no of the options as few as possible.
 Closed questions are useful if the range of possible responses is
known for ex:
2. Closed Question:

21.  Closed questions may be used as well to get the respondents to
express their opinions by choosing a rating points on a scale. Fro
example:-
2. Closed Question: cont
How useful would you say the activities of the village health
committee have been in the development of this village?
 Extremely useful.
 Very useful
 Useful
 Not very useful.
 Not useful at all

22. What’s your marital status?
 Single.
 Married / living together.
 Separated / divorced / widowed
 Closed questions also may be used if one is only interested in
certain aspects of an issue and doesn’t want to waste the time of
the respondent and interviewer by obtaining more information than
one need. For example: a researcher who is only interested in the
protein content of a family diet may ask:-
2. Closed Question: cont
Did you eat any of the following foods yesterday?
 Peas, bean, lentils Yes No
 Fish or meat Yes No
 Eggs Yes No
 Milk or cheese Yes No

23. Advantages of Closed Questions:
1-Answers can be recorded quickly.
2-Analysis is easy.
Disadvantages of Closed Questions:
1-Are less suitable for face to face interviews with non literates.
2-Respondents may choose options they would not have thought of
themselves (leading questions bias).
3-Important information may be missed if it isn’t asked.
4-The respondent and interviewer may lose interest after a number
of closed questions.

24. The suggestions for optimal use of the open and closed ended questions
Open-ended Questions Closed Questions
1. Train and supervise the interviewers or
select experienced people.
2. Prepare a list of further questions to
keep at hand to use to “probe” for
answer(s) in a systematic way.
3. Pre test open-ended questions and if
possible pre-categorize the most
common responses learning enough
space for other answers.
1. Use closed questions only on issues that
are simple.
2. Pre-test closed questions first as open-
ended questions to see if your categories
cover all possibilities.
3. Use closed questions in combination with
open-ended questions.

25. Administering Written Questionnaire:
Is data collection tool in which written questionnaire are presented
that are to be answered by the respondents in a written form.
1-It’s a relatively simple method of obtaining data.
2-It’s a rapid and efficient method of gathering information.
3-It’s less expensive.
4-It’s a simple method for exploring new ideas or topics.
5-It’s one of the easiest tools for testing the validity and reliability.
6-Doesn’t require research assistants.
7-Eliminate bias due to questions phrases differentiately with different
respondents.
Advantages of Administering Written
Questionnaire:

26. 1-Cannot be used with illiterate people.
2-Low rate of response.
3-The question may be misunderstood.
4-The instrument is unable to probe a topic in depth without becoming length.
5-Printing may be costly if the questionnaire is lengthy and printed on high
quality paper.
6-Time consuming for construction.
7-Some items may force the respondent to select the response that’s not his
actual choice “forced choice items”.
8-The amount of the gathered data is limited by the subjects available time and
interest span.
9-Some items may be misunderstood.
10-The sample is limited to these who are literate.
Disadvantages of Administering Written Questionnaire:

27. Scales:
 Is a form of self report/observation tool according to method of
data collection, it is more precise means of measuring
phenomena than the questionnaire.
 Summative scale are summed to obtain a single score.

28. Types of Scales:
1. Rating scales
 Are the crudest form of measures using scale technique.
 Commonly used by general public.
 Used in the observational measurement to guide data collection.
Example:
Examine differences in communication among nurses patient
Nurse come into my room:
 Rarely
 Sometimes
 When ever I call them.
 Frequently just to speak or check on me.

29. Types of Scales: Cont
2. The Likert scale
Designed to measure the opinion or attitude of subject, contains a
number of declarative statement with a scale after each statements.
Example:
Strongly
disagree
Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
agree
People with
cancer are
almost die

30. Types of Scales: Cont
3. Semantic Differential Scales
 Measures attitude and benefits.
 Consist of two opposite objectives with a 7 point between them.
Cancer
Certain Death Being cured
4. Visual Analogue Scales
Used to measures phenomena that are erratic over time
No pain
Pain as bad as it can
possibly be

31. Bias in Information Collection
Is a distortion that result in the information not being
representative of the true situation.
Possible source of bias during data collection:.
1. Defective Instruments:
Questionnaires with:
 Fixed closed questions on topic about which too little is known.
 Open ended questions without guidelines on how to ask (or to answer)
them.
 Vaguely phrased questions or
 Questions placed in an illogical order.
 Weighing scales that are not standardized.

32. NOTE:
These sources of bias can be prevented by carefully planning the
data collection process and by representing the data collection tools.
2. Observer Bias:
 Easily occur during observation or loosely structured group or
individual interviews.
 There is risk that the data collector will see or hear only things in
which he or she interested or will miss information that is critical
to research.
 Training and practice should be provided to data collections in
using these tools.

33. 3. Effect of the Interview on the Informant:
The informant may mistrust the intention of the interview and
dodge certain question or give misleading answers.
This can be reduced by:
1-Adequately introducing the purpose of the study to
informants.
2-Taking sufficient time for the interview.
3-Assuring the informants that the data collected will be
confidential.

34. Ethical Consideration in Data Collection:
As we develop our data collection techniques, we need to
consider whether our research procedures are likely to cause
any physical or emotional harm, harm may be caused for
example by:-
1-Violating informants right to privacy by posing sensitive questions, or
by gaining access to records that may contain personal data.
2-Observing the behaviors or informants without their being aware.
3-Failing to observe or respect certain cultural values, traditional or
taboos.

35. Several methods for dealing with these issues may be
recommended:-
1-Obtaining informed consent before the study or
interview begin.
2-Not exploring sensitive issues before a good
relationship has been established with the
informant.
3-Ensuring the confidentiality of the data
obtained.