Data collection techniques and tools include primary and secondary data sources. Primary data is collected directly by the researcher through methods like interviews, surveys, and observations. Secondary data involves information previously collected by others through sources like published documents, books, and journals. Some key data collection methods are interviews, observations, and questionnaires. Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured and involve direct verbal communication to obtain information. Observations allow researchers to gather data by watching behaviors or occurrences. Questionnaires utilize structured questions to collect self-reported information from respondents. Proper planning and consideration of factors like the study purpose and population are important for determining the appropriate data collection method.

1. Data CollectionData Collection
Techniques and ToolsTechniques and Tools
ARUN.MARUN.M
Senior LecturerSenior Lecturer
KVMCONKVMCON

2. Data
Data are observable and measurable facts
that provide information about the
phenomenon under study.

3. Data collection plan -why?
To yield accurate, valid
and meaningful data that
are maximally effective in
answering research
question.

4. Five ‘W’ of Data Collection
What data to Collect ?
Whom ?
Who ?
Where ?
When ?
How to collect data?

5. Primary Data
 are those which are
collected for
specific purpose
directly from the
field of enquiry and
original in nature.
 Such data are
published by
authorities who
themselves are
responsible for
their collection.
Example:
Documents
Creative
works
Interviews
Man-made
materials
Surveys

6. Secondary Data
 This is any source
cited for its second-
hand information
from a different
work.
 It also pertains on
the data which
have already
collected by other
person who entitled
to organize a data.
Example:
Unpublished
thesis and
dissertations
Manuscript
Books
Journals

7. SOU SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Primary SourcePrimary Source
•Data is collected by
researcher himself
•Data is gathered
through questionnaire,
interviews,
observations etc.
Secondary SourceSecondary Source
•Data collected,
compiled or
written by other
researchers eg. books,
journals, newspapers
•Any reference must
be acknowledged

8. Data collection methods
Ways of gathering information needed to address a
research problem.
 What data to be collected, (Problem and sub-
problems)
 who will collect the data (Training of data collectors)
 From whom the data will be collected
(Population/sample)
 When will the data be collected (Time period)
 From where the data will be collected (Setting)

9. SELECTION OF METHOD OF
DATA COLLECTION
Nature of the phenomenon
under study
Types of research subjects
 Types of research study
Purpose of research study
Size of the study sample

10. Distribution of the target
population
Time frame of the study
Literacy level of the subjects
Availability of resources and
manpower
Researchers knowledge and level
of competence

11. Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods

12. InterviewInterview
An interview involves verbal communicationAn interview involves verbal communication
between the researcher and the subjectbetween the researcher and the subject
during which information is provided to theduring which information is provided to the
researcherresearcher

13. Effective way
of gathering
information
INTERVIEW
Involves verbal
and non-verbal
communications
Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through mail

14. Interview Process
Prepare your interview schedule
Pre-interview introduction
Carrying the interview forward
Recording the interview
Developing Rapport
Closing the Interview

15. BENEFITSBENEFITS
 Provide in-depth and detailed informationProvide in-depth and detailed information
 Permits greater depth of responsePermits greater depth of response
 Data from illiterate subjectsData from illiterate subjects
 Higher responseHigher response
 Clarify misunderstandingsClarify misunderstandings
 Ask questions at different levelsAsk questions at different levels
 Helps to gather supplementary informationHelps to gather supplementary information

16. DrawbacksDrawbacks
 Time consumingTime consuming
 Cost affairsCost affairs
 Different interviewers may understand andDifferent interviewers may understand and
translate interviews in different ways.translate interviews in different ways.
 High degree chance for interview biasesHigh degree chance for interview biases

17. TYPESTYPES
Structured InterviewStructured Interview
(Standardized Interview , Directive Interview)(Standardized Interview , Directive Interview)
Structured interview refers to data collection inStructured interview refers to data collection in
which interviewer has an interview schedule inwhich interviewer has an interview schedule in
which the questions are listed in order in whichwhich the questions are listed in order in which
they are to be answered .they are to be answered .
Subjects are asked to respond to the sameSubjects are asked to respond to the same
questions, in the same order and with the samequestions, in the same order and with the same
set of response optionsset of response options

18. Unstructured InterviewUnstructured Interview
Nonstandardized Interview ,Nondirective interviewNonstandardized Interview ,Nondirective interview
Unstructured interview is a method wherein theUnstructured interview is a method wherein the
questions can be changed to meet the respondentsquestions can be changed to meet the respondents
intelligence, understanding, and beliefs.intelligence, understanding, and beliefs.
Interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freelyInterviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely
about the given topic with minimum prompting.about the given topic with minimum prompting.
No preplanned scheduleNo preplanned schedule

19. Semi-structured InterviewsSemi-structured Interviews
Is a flexible method that allows newIs a flexible method that allows new
questions to be brought up during thequestions to be brought up during the
interview , depending upon the situationinterview , depending upon the situation
during the interviewduring the interview

20. Indepth InterviewIndepth Interview
Is an intensive and investigative interviewIs an intensive and investigative interview
conducted and aimed at studying theconducted and aimed at studying the
respondents opinion and emotions on the basisrespondents opinion and emotions on the basis
of interview guide.of interview guide.

21. Focus Group InterviewFocus Group Interview
Where 8-12 members are brought togetherWhere 8-12 members are brought together
under the guidance of a trained interviewer tounder the guidance of a trained interviewer to
focus on a specific phenomenon to gain insightfocus on a specific phenomenon to gain insight
from the appropriate sample or targetfrom the appropriate sample or target
population.population.
Telephone InterviewTelephone Interview

22. ObservationObservation
 a method of collecting data regardinga method of collecting data regarding
occurrences or behaviors that can beoccurrences or behaviors that can be
observed through senses with or withoutobserved through senses with or without
mechanical devices.mechanical devices.
 can be used to gather a variety of informationcan be used to gather a variety of information

23. UsesUses
 To understand ongoing process or situationTo understand ongoing process or situation
 To gather data on individual behaviors orTo gather data on individual behaviors or
interactions between peopleinteractions between people
 To know about a physical setting.To know about a physical setting.
 Data collection where other methods are notData collection where other methods are not
possible.possible.

24. TypesTypes
 Structured ObservationStructured Observation
Researcher prepares a structured orResearcher prepares a structured or
semi-structured tool in advance to observe thesemi-structured tool in advance to observe the
phenomenon.phenomenon.
check listcheck list
rating scalerating scale

25.  Unstructured ObservationUnstructured Observation
Observation is made with minimally structuredObservation is made with minimally structured
and carried- out by using unstructured toolsand carried- out by using unstructured tools
Video recordingVideo recording

26.  Participant ObservationParticipant Observation
Observer may live or work in field andObserver may live or work in field and
actively participate in ongoing activities foractively participate in ongoing activities for
an extended periodan extended period
 Nonparticipant ObservationNonparticipant Observation
Observer works as an secret listener orObserver works as an secret listener or
observer , where an attempt is made to observeobserver , where an attempt is made to observe
people without interacting with them.people without interacting with them.

27. Planning For ObservationPlanning For Observation
 Focus DeterminationFocus Determination
 Data collection DesignData collection Design
 Site selectionSite selection
 Observer selectionObserver selection
 Observer trainingObserver training
 Appropriate observation timingsAppropriate observation timings

28. AdvantagesAdvantages
 Collects data so as when and where an activityCollects data so as when and where an activity
or event is happening.or event is happening.
 Does not believe in peoples ability orDoes not believe in peoples ability or
willingness to give informationwillingness to give information
 Directly allows to notice what people do ratherDirectly allows to notice what people do rather
than checking what people tell they didthan checking what people tell they did

29. DisadvantagesDisadvantages
 Observers biasObservers bias
 Hawthorne effectHawthorne effect
 Time consuming and expensiveTime consuming and expensive

30. QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
A questionnaire is a structured instrumentA questionnaire is a structured instrument
consisting of series of questions prepared by theconsisting of series of questions prepared by the
researcher that a research subject is asked toresearcher that a research subject is asked to
complete , to gather data from individuals aboutcomplete , to gather data from individuals about
knowledge, attitude, beliefs and feelingsknowledge, attitude, beliefs and feelings

31. Type of questionsType of questions
 Open format questionsOpen format questions
Those questions that provideThose questions that provide
opportunity for the respondents toopportunity for the respondents to
express their opinion in there own wayexpress their opinion in there own way..
 Closed format questionsClosed format questions
These questions offer a number ofThese questions offer a number of
alternative replies from which thealternative replies from which the
subject must choose the one that mostsubject must choose the one that most
likely matches the appropriate answer.likely matches the appropriate answer.

32. Subtypes Of Closed FormatSubtypes Of Closed Format
QuestionsQuestions
 Dichotomous QuestionsDichotomous Questions
These requires the respondents to makeThese requires the respondents to make
choices between two responses.choices between two responses.
eg Have you ever been hospitalisedeg Have you ever been hospitalised
yes/noyes/no

33.  Multiple Choice QuestionsMultiple Choice Questions
These requires the respondents to makeThese requires the respondents to make
choices between two or more alternativechoices between two or more alternative
responsesresponses
Eg which of the following disease is sexuallyEg which of the following disease is sexually
transmitted ?transmitted ?
a diabetes mellitusa diabetes mellitus b hypothyroidismb hypothyroidism
c syphilisc syphilis d hypertensiond hypertension

34.  Cafeteria QuestionsCafeteria Questions
These are special type of multiple choiceThese are special type of multiple choice
question that asks respondents to select a responsequestion that asks respondents to select a response
that mostly correspond to their viewsthat mostly correspond to their views
Eg what do you think about hormone replacementEg what do you think about hormone replacement
therapytherapy
a.a. Its dangerous should be avoidedIts dangerous should be avoided
b.b. One should be cautious while using itOne should be cautious while using it
c.c. I am uncertain about my viewI am uncertain about my view

35.  Rank Order QuestionsRank Order Questions
These questions that asks respondents to rankThese questions that asks respondents to rank
their responses from most favorable to leasttheir responses from most favorable to least
favorable.favorable.
Eg what according to you is most important forEg what according to you is most important for
your lifeyour life
a. moneya. money b. educationb. education c. familyc. family d. healthd. health

36.  Contingency QuestionsContingency Questions
The questions that is asked further only if theThe questions that is asked further only if the
respondents gives a particular response torespondents gives a particular response to
previous questionprevious question
Eg are you stressed?Eg are you stressed?
a. noa. no b. yes, what are the reasons?b. yes, what are the reasons?

37.  Rating QuestionsRating Questions
These questions ask the respondents to judgeThese questions ask the respondents to judge
something along an ordered dimensionsomething along an ordered dimension
Eg how you rank educational quality in indiaEg how you rank educational quality in india
1 2 3 4
Good Fair Poor Very poor

38.  Importance QuestionsImportance Questions
In this respondents asked to rate the importantIn this respondents asked to rate the important
of a particular issue on a rating scaleof a particular issue on a rating scale
Eg exercising everyday is …………. for healthEg exercising everyday is …………. for health
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely
important
Very
important
Somewhat
important
Not very
important
Not at all
important

39.  Likert questionsLikert questions
Likert questions help to know how strong aLikert questions help to know how strong a
respondent agrees with a particular statement.respondent agrees with a particular statement.
 Eg Is this community a good place to raiseEg Is this community a good place to raise
children.children.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly
Agree
Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
Disagree

40.  Bipolar questionsBipolar questions
Questions that have two extreme answers.Questions that have two extreme answers.
Respondents has to mark response betweenRespondents has to mark response between
two opposite ends of scaletwo opposite ends of scale

41.  Matrix questionsMatrix questions
Matrix questions include multiple questions,Matrix questions include multiple questions,
and identical response categories are assigned.and identical response categories are assigned.

42. Methods of questionnaireMethods of questionnaire
administrationadministration
 Personally administeredPersonally administered
 PostalPostal
 ElectronicElectronic
 PhonePhone

43. AdvantagesAdvantages
 Cost effectiveCost effective
 Easy to analyseEasy to analyse
 Requires less time and energy to administerRequires less time and energy to administer
 Reduce biasReduce bias
 Used for large sample sizeUsed for large sample size
 Less intrusive than phone or face to faceLess intrusive than phone or face to face
interview.interview.

44. DisadvantageDisadvantage
 Not suitable to allNot suitable to all
 Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled byQuestionnaire sent by mail may be filled by
someone else.someone else.
 Gives only superficial informationGives only superficial information
 Chances of misinterpretationChances of misinterpretation
 People can lie.People can lie.

45. Guidelines For Designing GoodGuidelines For Designing Good
QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
General pointsGeneral points
 Developed exactly in accordance with theDeveloped exactly in accordance with the
study objectivestudy objective
 Should begin with the instructions for theShould begin with the instructions for the
respondents to provide the responserespondents to provide the response
 Questionnaire should be concise, precise andQuestionnaire should be concise, precise and
brief because lengthy questionnaires may leadbrief because lengthy questionnaires may lead
to boredom among respondentsto boredom among respondents

46.  Questions outside the respondents experienceQuestions outside the respondents experience
should not be askedshould not be asked
 In asking questions about the past events tooIn asking questions about the past events too
much reliance should not be placed on themuch reliance should not be placed on the
respondents memory.respondents memory.
 Questions that are likely to lead to bias in theQuestions that are likely to lead to bias in the
respondents should be avoided.respondents should be avoided.
 Clear and simpleClear and simple
 Open ended questions should be avoidedOpen ended questions should be avoided
 Avoid questions with difficult conceptsAvoid questions with difficult concepts

47.  Controversial and ambiguous questions shouldControversial and ambiguous questions should
be avoidedbe avoided
 Structure of the questionnaire should be inStructure of the questionnaire should be in
according to the form in which the responses areaccording to the form in which the responses are
to be recordedto be recorded
 A mailed questionnaire should be accompaniedA mailed questionnaire should be accompanied
by introduction to the study, purpose andby introduction to the study, purpose and
directions to fill the questionnaire.directions to fill the questionnaire.
 Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaireAbrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire
should be avoided.should be avoided.

48. Sequence Of QuestionsSequence Of Questions
 There should be logical sequence of theThere should be logical sequence of the
questions in the questionnaire.questions in the questionnaire.
 Researcher has to make sure that the answer toResearcher has to make sure that the answer to
a question is not derived from a previousa question is not derived from a previous
question.question.
 Flow of question from general to specificFlow of question from general to specific
 Flow of question from least to most sensitive.Flow of question from least to most sensitive.

49.  The questionnaire should generally start withThe questionnaire should generally start with
demographic profiles of the subjects anddemographic profiles of the subjects and
followed by specific questions according to thefollowed by specific questions according to the
objectives of the study.objectives of the study.

50. Question ConstructionQuestion Construction
 Use statements that can be interpreted in sameUse statements that can be interpreted in same
way by all subjectsway by all subjects
 Use statements that persons have differentUse statements that persons have different
opinions and may give different answersopinions and may give different answers
 Use only one aspect of construct in which youUse only one aspect of construct in which you
are interestedare interested
 Avoid asking double-barrelled questionsAvoid asking double-barrelled questions
containing two distinct ideas or conceptcontaining two distinct ideas or concept

51.  Avoid leading, loaded , ambitious and longAvoid leading, loaded , ambitious and long
questionsquestions
 Avoid negative questionsAvoid negative questions
 Use positive statementsUse positive statements
 Assumptions should not be made aboutAssumptions should not be made about
respondentrespondent
 Comprehensive and clear wording should be usedComprehensive and clear wording should be used
 Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

52. Rating scalesRating scales
 Rating scales refers to scales with a set ofRating scales refers to scales with a set of
opinion , which describes varying degreeopinion , which describes varying degree
of attitude being observed.of attitude being observed.

53. TypesTypes
 Graphic Rating ScaleGraphic Rating Scale
In this scale the performance is printedIn this scale the performance is printed
horizontally at various points from lowest tohorizontally at various points from lowest to
highest. It includes the numerical point .It ishighest. It includes the numerical point .It is
anchored by two extremes to respondents foranchored by two extremes to respondents for
evaluation of a concept or object.evaluation of a concept or object.
Eg – How much are you satisfied with noise controlEg – How much are you satisfied with noise control
in your wardin your ward
LeastLeast MostMost

54.  Descriptive Rating ScaleDescriptive Rating Scale
Do not use number , but divide theDo not use number , but divide the
assessment into series of verbal phrases toassessment into series of verbal phrases to
indicate the level of performance.indicate the level of performance.
Eg Judge the level of performance in causalityEg Judge the level of performance in causality
level of clinical performancelevel of clinical performance
Nursing
personne
l in the
ward
Very
active
Active Moderat
ely
Active
Passive
Anandu
Arun
Nithin

55.  Numerical Rating ScaleNumerical Rating Scale
Divides the evaluation criteria into a fixedDivides the evaluation criteria into a fixed
number of points, but defines only numbers atnumber of points, but defines only numbers at
the extremes. In these scales, each statement isthe extremes. In these scales, each statement is
generally assigned a numerical score ranginggenerally assigned a numerical score ranging
from 1-10 or even more.from 1-10 or even more.
Eg pain assessment numerical scaleEg pain assessment numerical scale
no painno pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 worst pain2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 worst pain

56.  Comparative Rating ScaleComparative Rating Scale
The researcher makes a judgment about anThe researcher makes a judgment about an
attribute of a person by comparing it with thatattribute of a person by comparing it with that
of a similar other person.of a similar other person.

57. AdvantagesAdvantages
 Easy to measure and score the measuredEasy to measure and score the measured
attributes.attributes.
 Has a wide range of application in nursingHas a wide range of application in nursing
researchresearch
 Easily used for a large group.Easily used for a large group.
 Used for assessment of interests, attitudes, andUsed for assessment of interests, attitudes, and
personal characteristics.personal characteristics.
 Used to evaluate performance and skills.Used to evaluate performance and skills.
 Are adaptable and flexible research instruments.Are adaptable and flexible research instruments.

58. DisadvantagesDisadvantages
 It is difficult to fix up rating about manyIt is difficult to fix up rating about many
aspects of an individual.aspects of an individual.
 Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.

59. Likert scalesLikert scales
 named after the psychologist Rensis Likertnamed after the psychologist Rensis Likert
 used to assess attitude or opinion of subjects regardingused to assess attitude or opinion of subjects regarding
some phenomenonsome phenomenon
 consists of several declarative statements that express aconsists of several declarative statements that express a
view point on a topicview point on a topic
 Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to whichRespondents are asked to indicate the degree to which
they agree or disagree with the opinionthey agree or disagree with the opinion
 The number of responses may range from four to sevenThe number of responses may range from four to seven
 Values are placed on each response, with a value ofValues are placed on each response, with a value of oneone
on the most negative response and a value of five on theon the most negative response and a value of five on the
most positive responsivemost positive responsive on a five point scaleon a five point scale ..

60. DefinitionDefinition
Likert scale is a composite measureLikert scale is a composite measure
of attitude that involve summation of scores onof attitude that involve summation of scores on
set of items to which respondents are asked toset of items to which respondents are asked to
indicate their degree of agreement orindicate their degree of agreement or
disagreement.disagreement.

61. Direct-
ion of
scoring*
Items
SA A U D SD
+
_
_
+
+
1. I like to give care to patients
with HIV/AIDS
2. AIDS is a punishment from God
3.Immoral people develop AIDS
4.AIDS patients are to be treated
like any other patients
5. AIDS patients rights are to be
protected.

62.  Agreement with positively worded items andAgreement with positively worded items and
disagreement with negatively worded items aredisagreement with negatively worded items are
assigned scores.assigned scores.
 Thus a higher score indicates higher degree ofThus a higher score indicates higher degree of
agreement.agreement.
 A person’s total score is determined by addingA person’s total score is determined by adding
together individual item scorestogether individual item scores
 The summation feature of such scales makes itThe summation feature of such scales makes it
possible to make fine discriminations amongpossible to make fine discriminations among
people with different viewpointspeople with different viewpoints

63. UsesUses
 Used to measure the attitudes, values and feelingsUsed to measure the attitudes, values and feelings
of the people about specific concepts such asof the people about specific concepts such as
situations, people, places, objects, programmes,situations, people, places, objects, programmes,
practices, policies and so on.practices, policies and so on.
 It may also be used to assess the opinions of theIt may also be used to assess the opinions of the
respondents about a particular abstract concept.respondents about a particular abstract concept.
 It collects the opinions of people with variousIt collects the opinions of people with various
attitudes, emotions, and feelings towards aattitudes, emotions, and feelings towards a
particular concept.particular concept.

64. AdvantagesAdvantages
 Relatively easy to construct.Relatively easy to construct.
 More reliable and valid tool to measure theMore reliable and valid tool to measure the
psychosocial variables.psychosocial variables.
 It is less time consuming during constructionIt is less time consuming during construction
and administration.and administration.

65. DisadvantagesDisadvantages
 Respondents may feel forced to answer theRespondents may feel forced to answer the
questions.questions.
 Feeling of the respondents may not be fullyFeeling of the respondents may not be fully
assessed due to researchers preplannedassessed due to researchers preplanned
statements and categories.statements and categories.
 Casual approach of respondents in these scalesCasual approach of respondents in these scales
may provide misleading data.may provide misleading data.

66. Semantic Differential ScaleSemantic Differential Scale
 consists of two opposite adjectives with a 7-consists of two opposite adjectives with a 7-
point scale between thempoint scale between them
 The respondents are asked to rate a conceptThe respondents are asked to rate a concept
by selecting one point on the scale that bestby selecting one point on the scale that best
describes his or her view of the conceptdescribes his or her view of the concept
 The values for the scale are summed toThe values for the scale are summed to
obtain one score for each subjectobtain one score for each subject..

67. DefinitionDefinition
Semantic differential scale is a type ofSemantic differential scale is a type of
rating scale designed to measure therating scale designed to measure the
connotative meaning of objects, events andconnotative meaning of objects, events and
concepts.concepts.

68. Example of a Semantic DifferentialExample of a Semantic Differential
Male NurseMale Nurse
Competent ___7*___6___5___4____3____2____1__ incompetentCompetent ___7*___6___5___4____3____2____1__ incompetent
Cold ___1____2___3___4____5____6____7 WarmCold ___1____2___3___4____5____6____7 Warm
BadBad ________________________________ Good________________________________ Good
Responsible ________________________________ irresponsibleResponsible ________________________________ irresponsible
Successful ________________________________ UnsuccessfulSuccessful ________________________________ Unsuccessful
Important ________________________________ unimportantImportant ________________________________ unimportant

69. AdvantagesAdvantages
 A convenient method to assess the beliefs,A convenient method to assess the beliefs,
attitudes, and values in quantitative form.attitudes, and values in quantitative form.
 Easy to administerEasy to administer
 Provide reasonable valid and reliableProvide reasonable valid and reliable
quantitative data.quantitative data.

70. DisadvantagesDisadvantages
 It is difficult to select the relevant concepts,It is difficult to select the relevant concepts,
which are appropriate for any givenwhich are appropriate for any given
investigation.investigation.
 It is time consuming to find the appropriateIt is time consuming to find the appropriate
adjective pairs.adjective pairs.

71. Visual analogue ScalesVisual analogue Scales
 used to assess perception of stimuli such as pain,used to assess perception of stimuli such as pain,
sleep quality, anxiety, severity of symptoms etc.sleep quality, anxiety, severity of symptoms etc.
 consists of a linear scale, anchored by two words orconsists of a linear scale, anchored by two words or
phrasesphrases
 The subject is asked to place a mark through a lineThe subject is asked to place a mark through a line
to indicate the intensity of the stimulus.to indicate the intensity of the stimulus.
 The distance between the mark and the left of theThe distance between the mark and the left of the
scale is considered as the value of the stimuliscale is considered as the value of the stimuli

72. DefinitionDefinition
 Visual analogous scale is a tool used to help aVisual analogous scale is a tool used to help a
person rate the intensity of certain sensationsperson rate the intensity of certain sensations
and feelings, such as pain.and feelings, such as pain.
For example, the visual analogue scale forFor example, the visual analogue scale for
pain is a straight line with no pain at one end thepain is a straight line with no pain at one end the
worst pain imaginable at the other end, Aworst pain imaginable at the other end, A
patient marks a point on the line that matchespatient marks a point on the line that matches
the amount of pain he or she feels.the amount of pain he or she feels.

73. Example of a Visual analogue scaleExample of a Visual analogue scale
No ____________________________________No ____________________________________ Pain as badPain as bad
painpain as it can be.as it can be.

74. AdvantagesAdvantages
 It is a reliable and valid tool to measure theIt is a reliable and valid tool to measure the
intensity of certain sensations and feelings.intensity of certain sensations and feelings.
 The quantitative assessment is highlyThe quantitative assessment is highly
subjective phenomenon is possible by thissubjective phenomenon is possible by this
scale.scale.
 This scale is of most value when looking atThis scale is of most value when looking at
changes within individual.changes within individual.

75. DisadvantagesDisadvantages
 This scale cannot be used for comparingThis scale cannot be used for comparing
results across a group of individuals at theresults across a group of individuals at the
same time.same time.
 In measuring pain, the scale does not affordIn measuring pain, the scale does not afford
the patient an opportunity to record increasesthe patient an opportunity to record increases
in pain, thereby creating a bias in favour ofin pain, thereby creating a bias in favour of
treatment.treatment.

76.  In measuring pain or such sensations, theIn measuring pain or such sensations, the
reliability of this scale is low owing to thereliability of this scale is low owing to the
patient's need to recall their initial painpatient's need to recall their initial pain
severity.severity.

77. BIOPHYSIOLOGICALBIOPHYSIOLOGICAL
METHODSMETHODS
Involves the collection of
biophysiological data from the subjects by
using specialized equipments to determine
determine physical and biological statistics of
subjects

78. PURPOSESPURPOSES
 To study basic physiological process
basic physiological processes that
are relevant to nursing care.
eg A study of the person related to
biophysiological reactions during
period of stress.

79.  To study physiological outcome ofTo study physiological outcome of
nursing carenursing care
Used in studies exploring and
documenting the ways in which
nursing actions affect patients
biophysiologic outcome.
Eg Effect of tepid and cold
sponging on core body temperature
of patient

80.  To evaluate nursing interventionsTo evaluate nursing interventions
Involve a new intervention being
tested usually in comparison with
standard method of care.
eg A study to assess the effect of
music on heartbeat rate and blood
pressure of cardiac surgery patients..

81.  To study correlation ofTo study correlation of
physiological functioning inphysiological functioning in
patients with health problemspatients with health problems
Used for comparison of
physiological functioning of
patients with several health
problems.

82. TYPESTYPES
In vivoIn vivo
 Performed directly to measure process
occurring internally with in the organism
In vitroIn vitro
 Physiological processes are measured and
analyzed outside the organism

83. ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES
 More accurate and less error
 More objective in nature
 Provide valid measure for targeted variable
 Easy access to most of the instruments

84. DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES
 Very expensive
 Requires significant amount of training and
experience
 Instruments may cause fear and anxiety
 Health risk for the subjects

85. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUEPROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE
Are methods for measuring psychological
attributes by providing respondents with
unstructured stimuli to which they respond
 Ex: Value, attitude, personality etc

86. Q - SortsQ - Sorts
Is a technique in which the participants are
provided with pre written cards with words,
phrases and statements and asked to arrange
these cards in order along with a specific
bipolar dimension

88. ReliabilityReliability
Reliability is the degree of consistency andReliability is the degree of consistency and
accuracy with which an instrument measuresaccuracy with which an instrument measures
the attribute for which it is designed.the attribute for which it is designed.

89. Factors that depends to measureFactors that depends to measure
reliabilityreliability
 StabilityStability
The stability aspect of reliability means aThe stability aspect of reliability means a
research instrument provides same resultsresearch instrument provides same results
when it is consecutively used for two or morewhen it is consecutively used for two or more
times. Stability is estimated to make sure thattimes. Stability is estimated to make sure that
research instrument is constant in providingresearch instrument is constant in providing
similar results with repeated administration.similar results with repeated administration.

90.  Internal consistencyInternal consistency
Internal consistency ensures that all theInternal consistency ensures that all the
subparts of the research instrument measure thesubparts of the research instrument measure the
same characteristic.same characteristic.
E.g.- A patients satisfaction measurement scaleE.g.- A patients satisfaction measurement scale
developed to measure the patients satisfactiondeveloped to measure the patients satisfaction
with nursing care must include all the subpartswith nursing care must include all the subparts
related to the measurement of satisfaction withrelated to the measurement of satisfaction with
nursing care only, including a subpart related tonursing care only, including a subpart related to
patients satisfaction with health care would bepatients satisfaction with health care would be
inappropriate in the scale.inappropriate in the scale.

91.  EquivalenceEquivalence
In this aspect of reliability it is done forIn this aspect of reliability it is done for
testing the reliability of a tool. In this twotesting the reliability of a tool. In this two
different observers observe a singledifferent observers observe a single
phenomenon simultaneously andphenomenon simultaneously and
independently.independently.

92. ValidityValidity
Validity refers to which an instrumentValidity refers to which an instrument
measures what it is suppose to measuringmeasures what it is suppose to measuring

93. Types Of ValidityTypes Of Validity
 Face ValidityFace Validity
Overall look of a instrument regarding itsOverall look of a instrument regarding its
appropriateness to measure a particularappropriateness to measure a particular
phenomenon.phenomenon.
In simple words this aspect of validity refers toIn simple words this aspect of validity refers to
the face value and the outlook of anthe face value and the outlook of an
instrument.instrument.

94.  Content ValidityContent Validity
It is concerned with scope of coverage ofIt is concerned with scope of coverage of
content area to be measured.content area to be measured.
 Criterion validityCriterion validity
In this validity is a relationship betweenIn this validity is a relationship between
measurements of the instrument with somemeasurements of the instrument with some
external criteria.external criteria.

95.  Construct validityConstruct validity
Construct validity is the key criterion forConstruct validity is the key criterion for
assessing the quality of a study. A construct isassessing the quality of a study. A construct is
founded in this type of validity.founded in this type of validity.
Construct validity requires an assessmentConstruct validity requires an assessment
of how well an instrument measures aof how well an instrument measures a
theoretical construct.theoretical construct.

96. PILOT STUDYPILOT STUDY
A pilot study is referred to a small scaleA pilot study is referred to a small scale
preliminary tryout of the method to be used inpreliminary tryout of the method to be used in
the large research study, which acquaints thethe large research study, which acquaints the
researcher with problems that can be correctedresearcher with problems that can be corrected
in proportion for the large research study or isin proportion for the large research study or is
done to provide the researcher with andone to provide the researcher with an
opportunity to try out the procedure, methodsopportunity to try out the procedure, methods
and tool of data collection.and tool of data collection.

97. PurposesPurposes
 To study the feasibility and practicability ofTo study the feasibility and practicability of
the research study.the research study.
 To assess the availability of the study subjects.To assess the availability of the study subjects.
 To assess the validity and reliability of theTo assess the validity and reliability of the
research tool.research tool.
 To ensure the appropriateness of methods andTo ensure the appropriateness of methods and
procedures of data collection.procedures of data collection.

98.  To understand the study variables and otherTo understand the study variables and other
variables.variables.
 To estimate the actual and potential problemsTo estimate the actual and potential problems
researcher may encounter during the actualresearcher may encounter during the actual
large research study.large research study.
 To refine methodologyTo refine methodology
 To plan for data analysis and interpretation forTo plan for data analysis and interpretation for
the final larger research study.the final larger research study.

99. Bio-physiologic MethodsBio-physiologic Methods
 most reliable and valid of measurementsmost reliable and valid of measurements
 Techniques like direct observation, self-report,Techniques like direct observation, self-report,
paper and pencil scalespaper and pencil scales
 specialized equipments and instruments ( details ofspecialized equipments and instruments ( details of
the exact procedures followed and specificthe exact procedures followed and specific
description of the equipment used)description of the equipment used)
 Comparison of physiologic measures withComparison of physiologic measures with
psychological phenomena possiblepsychological phenomena possible
 Risk of false-positive and false-negative test resultsRisk of false-positive and false-negative test results

100. Self- reportsSelf- reports
 Collecting information directly from theCollecting information directly from the
subjects by questioning themsubjects by questioning them
 Human beings can communicate whatHuman beings can communicate what
they think, feel or believe through thisthey think, feel or believe through this
method.method.
 Efficient in gathering data which areEfficient in gathering data which are
difficult to get by other meansdifficult to get by other means

101. Self-report….Self-report….limitationslimitations
 concern about the validity and accuracy ofconcern about the validity and accuracy of
the information.the information.
 The researcher cannot guarantee that whatThe researcher cannot guarantee that what
people say is exactly what they think or feelpeople say is exactly what they think or feel
especially if the data are embarrassing or onespecially if the data are embarrassing or on
socially undesirable matterssocially undesirable matters

102. Self-report: techniquesSelf-report: techniques
 InterviewInterview
 administration of questionnaire oradministration of questionnaire or
other instrumentsother instruments
 projective techniquesprojective techniques

103. The most common
data collection instrument
Survey
Questionnaire
Useful to collect
quantitative and qualitative
information
Should contain 3 elements:
1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions

104. Types of survey questionaire:
1. Open-ended Questions
– Free-response
(Text Open End)
– Fill-in relevant
information
2. Close-ended Questions
– Dichotomous question
– Multiple-choice
– Cafeteria question
– Rank Order Question
– Contingency question
– Rating Questions

105. Steps To An Effective Survey Questionnaire
Prepare your survey questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions, make copies)
Select your respondents/sampling
Random/Selected
Administer the survey questionnaire
(date, venue, time )
Analyze and interpret data collected
Tabulate data collected
(Statistical analysis-frequency/mean/correlation/% )

106. Characteristics of ResearchCharacteristics of Research
InstrumentsInstruments
 Validity refers to the degree to which anValidity refers to the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is intended toinstrument measures what it is intended to
measure.measure.
 Validity of an instrument is a determination ofValidity of an instrument is a determination of
how well it reflects the abstract concept beinghow well it reflects the abstract concept being
examinedexamined
 Validation of a tool is an ongoing process.Validation of a tool is an ongoing process.

107.  Content ValidityContent Validity
 Content validity is concerned with theContent validity is concerned with the
sampling adequacy of the content area beingsampling adequacy of the content area being
measured. Content validation requires themeasured. Content validation requires the
systematic investigation of an instrument tosystematic investigation of an instrument to
determine whether its items adequately sampledetermine whether its items adequately sample
the domain being measured and whether theythe domain being measured and whether they
are constructed in the most appropriate formare constructed in the most appropriate form

108.  Criterion related ValidityCriterion related Validity
 Criterion related validity refers to the degree to whichCriterion related validity refers to the degree to which
scores on the test are correlated with some externalscores on the test are correlated with some external
criterioncriterion
 concurrentconcurrent validityvalidity refers to an instrument’s ability torefers to an instrument’s ability to
distinguish individuals who differ on a presentdistinguish individuals who differ on a present
criterion andcriterion and predictive validitypredictive validity refers to the adequacyrefers to the adequacy
of an instrument in predicting the performance orof an instrument in predicting the performance or
behaviour of individuals on some future criteria.behaviour of individuals on some future criteria.

109.  Construct validityConstruct validity
 Construct validity requires an assessment ofConstruct validity requires an assessment of
how well an instrument measures a theoreticalhow well an instrument measures a theoretical
construct. The investigator is concerned withconstruct. The investigator is concerned with
the question: is the construct underthe question: is the construct under
investigation being adequately measured?investigation being adequately measured?

110. ReliabilityReliability
the accuracy and consistency of a measuringthe accuracy and consistency of a measuring
instrument. Reliability means repeatability,instrument. Reliability means repeatability,
whether the scale is measuring something in awhether the scale is measuring something in a
reproducible fashion.reproducible fashion.
Stability, internal consistency and equivalenceStability, internal consistency and equivalence
are the important reliability estimates. Theare the important reliability estimates. The
following is a brief description of the three.following is a brief description of the three.

111.  The common methods to establish constructThe common methods to establish construct
validity are: factor analysis, known groupvalidity are: factor analysis, known group
technique, and multitrait multimethodtechnique, and multitrait multimethod
approach.approach.