Introduction
Petrophysic of the rocks
It is the study of the physical and chemical properties of the rocks related to the pores and fluid distribution
Porosity, is ratio between volume of void to the total voids of the rock.
Permeability, is ability of a porous material to allow fluids to pass through it.
Electric, most of the sedimentary rocks don’t have conductivity.
Radiation, clay rocks have 40K, radiate alpha ray.
Hardness, it depends on the cementing material and thickness of the sediments.
WELL LOGGING
The systematic recording of rock properties and it’s fluid contents in wells being drilled or produced to obtain various petrophysical parameters and characteristics of down hole sequences (G.E Archie 1950).
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical properties in a well.
These methods are particularly good when surface outcrops are not available, but a direct sample of the rock is needed to be sure of the lithology.
A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.
In some cases, the measurements are not direct, it require interpretation by analogy or by correlating values between two or more logs run in the same hole.
Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and stratigraphic correlation.
Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and gas saturation.
Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.
Types of Well Logging
Logs can be classified into several types under different category
Permeability and lithology Logs
Gamma Ray log
Self Potential [SP] log
Caliber log
Porosity Logs
Density log
Sonic log
Neutron log
Electrical Logs
Resistivity Log
For contact : omerupto3@gmail.com
WELL LOG : Types of Logs, The Bore Hole Image, Interpreting Geophysical Well Logs, applications, Production logs, Well Log Classification and Cataloging
This document provides a basic overview of the fundamental rock properties. It delivers a detailed analysis of the basic reservoir rock properties like porosity, permeability, Fluid saturation , wettability, etc.
WELL LOG : Types of Logs, The Bore Hole Image, Interpreting Geophysical Well Logs, applications, Production logs, Well Log Classification and Cataloging
This document provides a basic overview of the fundamental rock properties. It delivers a detailed analysis of the basic reservoir rock properties like porosity, permeability, Fluid saturation , wettability, etc.
The presentation comprises the Gravity Method, It's anomaly, reduction, and its applications. The Gravity method is commonly used in Geology specifically in Geophysics.
Reservoir Porosity; Porosity Definition; Types Porosity; Origins of Porosity in Clastics and Carbonates; Primary (Original) Porosity; Secondary (Induced) Porosity; Pore Space Porosity Classification; Absolute (or Total) Porosity; Effective Porosity; Porosity Calculated; Porosity Values; Porosity in Sandstone; Sandstones Porosity Types; Factors That Affect Porosity in Sandstones ; Grain Packing in Sandstone; Progressive Destruction of Bedding Through Bioturbation; Dual Porosity in Sandstone; Dissolution Porosity in Sandstone; Porosity in Carbonate; Carbonates Porosity Types; Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types; Comparison of Total and Effective Porosities; Reservoir Average Porosity; MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
The presentation comprises the Gravity Method, It's anomaly, reduction, and its applications. The Gravity method is commonly used in Geology specifically in Geophysics.
Reservoir Porosity; Porosity Definition; Types Porosity; Origins of Porosity in Clastics and Carbonates; Primary (Original) Porosity; Secondary (Induced) Porosity; Pore Space Porosity Classification; Absolute (or Total) Porosity; Effective Porosity; Porosity Calculated; Porosity Values; Porosity in Sandstone; Sandstones Porosity Types; Factors That Affect Porosity in Sandstones ; Grain Packing in Sandstone; Progressive Destruction of Bedding Through Bioturbation; Dual Porosity in Sandstone; Dissolution Porosity in Sandstone; Porosity in Carbonate; Carbonates Porosity Types; Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types; Comparison of Total and Effective Porosities; Reservoir Average Porosity; MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
A small presentation about wireline logs, showing their function or the technology that they use.
Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Petroleum Geology II, Winter Semester 2013/2014.
Well logs can be states as “a recording against depth of any of the characteristics of the rock formations traversed by a measuring apparatus in the well-bore.”
A magnetic survey is a geophysical exploration method used to detect and map variations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by the magnetic properties of subsurface materials. This technique is widely applied in mineral exploration, petroleum exploration, and archaeological studies. Here's a general overview with case study and problems to be solved.
The continental crust covers nearly a third of the Earth’s surface, extends vertically from the Earth’s surface to the Moho discontinuity.
It is less dense than oceanic crust.
Compositionally is dominating by silicate elements
Models for the differentiation of the continental crust shows when and how it was formed
Reconciling the sedimentary and igneous records indicates that it may take up to one billion years for a new crust to dominate the sedimentary record.
The continental crust of the Earth differs from the crust of other planets in the Solar System
Its formation modified the composition of the mantle and the atmosphere
It supports life
And it remains a sink for CO2
Evaluating the composition of new continental crust can provide important clues as to how and when it may have been generated. Which is required understanding the differentiation processes of igneous (granites) and sedimentary rocks
Climate like any other physical phenomena it is dynamic and not static.
In every part of the world one year, one decade or one century is different than the other.
The change does not only have academic important but its effects in all the forms of life.
Plants, animals, human beings change with changes of climate.
In general, all living species thrive under definite and limit conditions and any great deviation from that will leads to destruction and death of the species.
Ecology: Scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments which includes Biotic Factors: (Living organisms) , Abiotic Factors: (Nonliving physical and chemical conditions of an environment).
What are the levels of the Ecology?
Ecology has Five Levels.
Individual organism: Single organism in an environment
Populations: Group of individual organisms of same species living in the same area
Communities: All of the organisms that inhabit a particular area make up a community, like coral reef and other organisms live around in the reef
Ecosystems: An ecosystem includes both the biotic and abiotic factors of an area
Biosphere:
Sum of all of Earth's ecosystems, it is an envelope of air, land, and water supporting all living things on Earth. It consists of both the atmosphere and ocean.
Ecologists investigate global issues in the biosphere, including climate change and its effect on living things
The effects have been most dramatic at high latitudes, where multiple processes contribute to decreased surface reflectivity
Changes in temperature are causing species to shift their natural ranges; however, those are unable to move in line with changing temperatures are being put at risk.
Oceans are a vast body of salt water that covers almost three to fourths of the earth's surface.
Seas are smaller, found on the margins of the ocean and are partially enclosed by land.
Seawater:
High density, high heat capacity, colder, salty and slightly compressible (its volume decreases under pressure), thus its density increases with pressure.
Why is Ocean Circulation Important?
•Similar to winds in the atmosphere, they transfer significant amounts of heat from equatorial areas to the poles and thus play important roles in determining the climates of coastal regions.
•The ocean circulation pattern exchanges water of varying characteristics, such as temperature and salinity
•ocean currents and atmospheric circulation influence one another.
•in addition, they transport nutrients and organisms
Microfossils are very small remains of organisms 0.001 mm (1 micron) to 1 mm, that require magnification for study.
They are abundant, can be recovered from small samples.
Provide the main evidence for organic evolution through the time
They classified into two groups:
Organic-walled; Acritarchs, Dinoflagellate, Spores and Pollen grains … etc.
Foraminifera Each chamber interconnected by an opening (foramen) or several openings (foramina).
Known from Early Cambrian through to recent times, and has reached its acme during the Cenozoic.
Have a wide environmental range from terrestrial to deep sea and from polar to the tropical region.
Depending on the species, the shell may be made of organic compounds, sand grains and other particles cemented together, or from crystalline calcite.
Inorganic walled; Diatoms, Silicoflagellates, Ostracods, Conodonts, and Foraminifera
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional of the rock units with respect to their deformational histories, Structure is spatial and geometrical configuration of rock components.
Structures are classified into two types:
Primary structures.
Secondary structures
Primary structures
Structures that form during deposition or crystallization of the rock, are the result of two processes:
Settling of solid particles from fluid medium in which they have been suspended, in most of the sedimentary rocks.
Crystallization of mineral grains from a liquid in which they have been dissolved as in igneous rocks.
Evaporation is a process by which water changed from the liquid or solid state into the gaseous state through the absorption of heat
It is always related to the loss of water from a free surface over a fixed time interval. Either direct observation or calculation based on the factors involved in the transfer of thermal energy.
One of the fundamental component of hydrological cycle
Essential requirements in the process are
The source of energy to vaporize the liquid water (solar or wind)
The presence of gradient of concentration between the evaporating surface and the surrounding air.
Gold is a transitional metal. In its purest form have reddish yellow color, soft, malleable, and ductile metal.
Atomic number : 79
Atomic mass : 196.9 u
Density : 19.32 g/cm3
Melting point : 1,064 °C
Boiling point : 2,700 °C
Founded in different form associated with different rock type in different tectonic setting.
Discovered from earlier time and used for multi purposes.
Formation of gold
The saying among prospectors that "gold is where you find it" suggests its occurrence is unpredictable, but there is some certain geological environments for the formation.
Because gold is very stable over a range of conditions, it is very widespread in the earth’s crust.
Gold dissolved in warm to hot salty water, the fluids are generated in huge volumes deep in the Earth’s crust as water-bearing minerals dehydrate during metamorphism.
Any gold present in the rocks being heated and squeezed is sweated out and goes into solution as complex ions.
In this form, dissolved gold, along with other elements such as silicon, iron and sulphur, migrates wherever fractures in the rocks allow the fluids to pass.
The direction is generally upwards, to cooler regions at lower pressures nearer the Earth’s surface.
Gold eventually becomes insoluble and begins to crystallize, most often enveloped by quartz.
The association of gold and quartz vein forms one of the most common types of "primary gold deposits".
India
In India, gold mineralization of economic importance is mainly restricted to Archean greenstone terranes of the Dharwar Craton (DC).
The eastern block of the DC has a high favorability for hosting major gold deposits such as Kolar, Hutti, and Ramagiri, whereas the western block hosts only a few smaller deposits such as Gadag, Ajjahanahalli, and Kempinkote.
Gold also discoverrd by GSI in the Singbhum Craton, Aravalli Craton, Bastar Craton and Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT).
India is the second-largest consumer of gold after China.
India currently holds about 558 tones of gold, representing 6.6% of its reserves, (World Gold Council, October 2016).
Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold Field and Ramgiri Gold Field are the most important gold fields.
Gold Demand and Use
The largest source of demand is the jewelry industry Gold’s workability, unique beauty, and universal appeal make this rare precious metal the favorite of jewelers all over the world.
Besides jewelry, gold has many applications in a variety of industries including aerospace, medicine, dentistry, and electronics for the manufacture of computers, telephones, televisions...
The third source of gold demand is governments and central banks that buy gold to increase their official reserves.
Private investors there are private investors. Depending upon market circumstances, the investment component of demand can vary substantially from year to year.
The Earth is an unusual planet by having bimodal topography that reflects the two distinct types of crust.
Crust is outer part of the Earth and compositionally is consist tow types, continental and oceanic crust.
The oceanic crust is thin (~ 7 km ), and composed from denser rocks such as basalt , younger.
Whereas the continental crust is thick (~ 40 Km), and composed of highly diverse lithologies, and contains the oldest rocks.
Introduction
Stratigraphy is the study of strata (sedimentary layers) in the Earth's crust, it is the relationship between rocks and time.
Stratigrapher are concerned with the observation, description and interpretation of direct and tangible evidence in rocks to determine the history of the Earth.
The combination of sedimentology and stratigraphy allows us to build up pictures of the Earth’s surface at different times in different places and relate them to each other through the relative ages of rocks
A more modern way of stating the same principle is that the laws of nature (laws of chemistry and physics) that have operated in the same way since the beginning of time.
And thus if we understand the physical and chemical principles by which nature operates, we can assume that nature operated the same way in the past.
Basic principles of stratigraphy
Principle of Uniformitarianism
Principle of Lateral Horizontality
Principle of Superposition
Principle of Cross-cutting Relations
Principle of Inclusions
Principle of Chilled Margins
Correlation
The southern Indian granulite terrane is known for granulite - facies rocks which is formed during the ‘Pan-African orogeny.
The region is composed of Neoproterozoic to Cambrian crustal blocks, dissected by large-scale shear zones (Palghat-Cauvery and Achankovil).
The Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone System (PCSZ), separates the terrane into two parts, Archean Dharwar Craton in the north and the Neoproterozoic Madurai Block in the south.
The southern margin of this block is defined by the Achankovil Shear Zone.
Geology of the study area
The Achankovil Shear Zone (ACSZ) is major lineament of 8-10 km width and >100 km length.
The rocks in the zone display a prominent NW-SE trending foliation with steep dips to southwest.
Estimation of pressure and temperature (P-T) of this lithology was first carried out by Santosh (1987) based on conventional geothermometers and mineral equilibrium, that gave 700-800◦ C at 5.5-7.0 kbar.
Later study done by Nandakumar and Harley (2000) which is slightly higher 925 ± 20◦ C at 6.5-7.0 kbar .
3.1. Grt- Opx- Crd Gneiss
The Grt-Opx-Crd gneiss is a coarse-grained, granulite-facies rock with a probable pelitic protolith.
The mineralogy of a representative sample (KR19-5G1) is plagioclase (30-40%), ortho-pyroxene (20-30%), garnet (10-20%), K-feldspar (10-20%), quartz (5-10%), and cordierite (2-5%) with accessory of biotite, spinel, and sillimanite (Fig. 2a).
Garnet is very coarse-grained (3-6 mm) ,subidioblastic, and contains numerous fine-grained inclusions of sillimanite (0.05-0.2 mm), biotite (0.05-0.4 mm), spinel (0.05-0.1 mm), and quartz (0.05-0.1 mm).
The most significant feature of this rock is the direct contact relation of fine grained spinel and quartz (Spl + Qtz), which occur only as inclusions in garnet.
Spl + Qtz association has been regarded as one of the indicators for decompression at UHT conditions. This is the first finding of such an assemblage from the ACSZ.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
The term ophiolite was initially given to dark green shiny outcrops which composed of serpentines (serpentinite rocks)
later on become used not only to a single rock , but also to an association of related rock types which are found as a consistent of upper mantle rocks and oceanic crust.
ophiolite sequence
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
Komattite
Named after the Komati River in South Africa.
first described by Morris and Richard (twins) for ultramafic units in the Barberton Greenstone belt of South Africa.
Mostly of komatiite are Archean age
distributed in the Archaean shield areas.
Also a few are Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.
In all ages komatiites are highly magnesium.
Mostly a volcanic rock; occasionally intrusive.
Mafic rocks were identified as extrusive because of their volcanic textures and structures, and they seem to have been accepted as a normal component of Archean volcanic successions, Abitibi in Canada.
The ultramafic rocks were interpreted as intrusive which are founded as sills and dykes, Barberton in South Africa.
Spinifex texture-typical of Komatiites:
The name Spinifex refer to a spiky grass in Australian.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
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We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
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Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
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Home assignment II on Spectroscopy 2024 Answers.pdf
Well logging
1.
2. Introduction
Petrophysic of the rocks
It is the study of the physical and chemical properties
of the rocks related to the pores and fluid distribution
• Porosity, is ratio between volume of void to the
total voids of the rock.
• Permeability, is ability of a porous material to
allow fluids to pass through it.
• Electric, most of the sedimentary rocks don’t have
conductivity.
• Radiation, clay rocks have 40K, radiate alpha ray.
• Hardness, it depends on the cementing material
and thickness of the sediments.
3. WELL LOGGING
• The systematic recording of rock properties and
it’s fluid contents in wells being drilled or produced
to obtain various petrophysical parameters and
characteristics of down hole sequences (G.E Archie
1950).
• The measurement versus depth or time, or both,
of one or more physical properties in a well.
• These methods are particularly good when
surface outcrops are not available, but a direct
sample of the rock is needed to be sure of the
lithology.
4. • A wide range of physical parameters can be
measured.
• In some cases, the measurements are not direct,
it require interpretation by analogy or by
correlating values between two or more logs run
in the same hole.
• Provide information on lithology, boundaries of
formations and stratigraphic correlation.
• Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and
gas saturation.
• Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.
5. Types of Well Logging
Logs can be classified into several types under
different category
Permeability and lithology Logs
• Gamma Ray log
• Self Potential [SP] log
• Caliber log
Porosity Logs
• Density log
• Sonic log
• Neutron log
Electrical Logs
• Resistivity Log
7. Gamma Ray Log (GR)
• Measures the radioactivity of the formation and
evaluation of radioactive minerals, such as
potassium and uranium deposits in clay rocks,
like shale.
• Gamma ray penetrates steel, so the log can be
run in cased holes.
• The log has robust lithostratigraphic indicator
that can be used for correlation and facies
studies.
• Unaffected by fluids
• Evaluation of shale content.
8. • Scale 0 ------- 150
• The base line
(shale line) is
center line = 75
50
100
150
200
----
GR Log
Depth (M)
Clay
Permeable
zone
Sand
9. Where;
V(sh)= shale volume (%),
GR(log)= GR value from log,
GR(max)=GR value from log at shale line,
GR(min)= GR value from log at sand line
Evaluation of the shale content
10. Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
• Measuring the difference in electrical potential
between two electrodes, a grounded electrode
and an electrode on the sonde (logging tool).
• The SP log is very similar in shape to GR log
(but does not identify thin beds), and both can
be used alternatively for correlation purposes.
• If the fluid is better conductor than the drilling
mud (salt water), the curve will deflect to the
left.
• If the fluid is poor conductor (fresh water or oil),
it will deflect to the right.
11. SP Log
• Scale,
1 line = 20 mV The base line = 0
Hard rock
Saline water
Not clay
Friable rock
Fresh water
Clay
12. Caliber Log
• The logging system provides a continuous
recording of borehole diameter versus depth.
• Can be used in both soft and hard formations,
run in uncased wells.
• The main indicator of the log is:
Determine hole and casing diameter,
Locate caved zones,
Recognition of mud cake
When a hole diameter less than the bit size is an
excellent indicator of permeability.
15. Density Log
• The log measures the bulk density of the
formation, by tool contains a radioactive source
emitting gamma rays.
• Measure how much radiation returns to a sensor
and that controlled by rock density, porosity,
composition of the formation and fluids.
• The main use of the Log is to determine a value of
porosity.
• It s also useful in the detection of gas-bearing
formations and recognition of evaporites.
16. Density Log
Scale = 0.1
Add the value from left
to right
Or subtract from right
to left
17. Sonic (acoustic) Log
• Is a continuous record of the specific time
required versus depth for a compressed wave to
travel through a given distance of formation in the
borehole. (ms/ft.) or (s/ft.)
• The acoustic travel time in a formation depends
upon lithology and porosity, the more dense the
lower the travel time (∆t) because sound waves
travel through the rock it self rather than the mud
• The main uses, is estimation of porosity (primary)
and the calibration of regional seismic data.
19. Sonic Log
∆t log = Reading from sonic log in µs/ft
∆t ma =Transit time of matrix material
∆t f = fluid velocity ~189 s/ft.
20. Neutron Log
• The log design from the fact, hydrogen atom is
consist of proton and electron so it is very needful
to the neutron.
• Using a radioactive source emitting neutrons
which is collide with the hydrogen nuclei of the
formation material.
• The amount of returning radiation will show the
total of the lost, a dry layer will reject all the
neutron and if it is contain a fluids the lost will be
more.
• Most of the gas field discovered by the neutron
Log (when the density is low compare with other
Logs for the water and oil).
21. Neutron Log
Displayed as
(NPHI, PHIN, NPOR)
For the limestone
porosity is direct from
the log
EX: 14%
Whereas other
lithology is from the
other chart
24. Electrical Logs
• Are the most important tools available and first logs
to be used by Marcel and Conrad Schlumberger
1927
• Widely used in exploration work for water, minerals
, hydrocarbons and engineering purposes.
• The main use of the electrical tools is to calculate
The water saturation of a reservoir formation
Electrical conductivity or resistivity of the
materials
And give an idea about hydrocarbon.
25. Resistivity Log
• Resistivity of the material is resistant in ohms of a unit
cube, (ohms/S) or (ohms/M)
• Most of the rocks are porous and moisture (sandstone), and
other are compacted which they are containing moisture in
the component minerals (granite)
• Resistivity decrease with increase in the moisture content
and for rock with low moisture content resistivity
determined by the component minerals.
• Weathered rocks has lower resistivity than fresh.
26. 1/ Micro for saturated zone
2/ Shallow for transition
zone
3/ Deep for the zone which
is not effected by drilling
mud
Types of Resistivity
27. Resistivity Log
Micro: red Deep: black Shallow: blue
M<S<D
Saline water
M>S>D
Fresh water
M<S<<D
Petroleum
Dry layer when they shows overlap
between them
When the D and M only
overlapping that give an idea about
the reservoir
28. CONCLUSION
• Depending onthe Petrophysic ofthe rocksdifferent type oflogging
have beenusedfordetermine different properties ,porosity,
• Theimportance thing inthe logisheading andbase line.
• Combinationsoftwoormorelogsbetter than onelog fordetermine
lithology,porosity, and hydrocarbon content.
29. REFERENCES
• Andrew D. Miall (2016), Stratigraphy: A modern Synthesis, Springer International
Publishing Switzerland, 454 P.
• Baker Hughes INTEQ (2001), Advanced Wireline & MWD Procedures Manual,
Baker Hughes INTEQ Technical Publications Group, 192P.
• http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/
• https://www.spec2000.net/