This document provides an overview of cell structure and function. It begins with an introduction to cell theory and sizes of living things. It then describes principles limiting cell size and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Organelles of animal and plant cells are outlined, including the endomembrane system, energy-related organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts, and other structures. Microscopy techniques for viewing cells are also summarized.
6.1 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry to study cells
6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions.
6.3 The eukaryotic cell's genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes.
6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell.
6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another.
6.6 The cyto
6.1 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry to study cells
6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions.
6.3 The eukaryotic cell's genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes.
6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell.
6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another.
6.6 The cyto
Austin Cell Biology strongly supports the scientific up gradation and fortification in related scientific research community by enhancing access to peer reviewed scientific literary works.
This is the report I made I uploaded it because i thought
it could be of help to those people who are looking for a simpler Fun Power Point...
it's coverages are
The cell history
the cell theory
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
it doesnt have the cell structure
because my classmate
didnt gave me his report
and this is like introduction of the cell
:)
Austin Cell Biology strongly supports the scientific up gradation and fortification in related scientific research community by enhancing access to peer reviewed scientific literary works.
This is the report I made I uploaded it because i thought
it could be of help to those people who are looking for a simpler Fun Power Point...
it's coverages are
The cell history
the cell theory
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
it doesnt have the cell structure
because my classmate
didnt gave me his report
and this is like introduction of the cell
:)
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2. The Cell
Learning Objectives
• Describe principles that limit cell size
• Describe fundamental differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types
• Ability to recognize models of eukaryotic
cellular compartments and ascribe functions
to each
• Describe essential similarities and difference
between animal and plant cells
• Outline intracellular and extracellular
protein structures and describe their
functions.
2Chapter 6
3. The Cell 3Chapter 6
Cell Theory
A unifying concept in biology
Originated from the work of biologists
Schleiden and Schwann in 1838-9
States that:
All organisms are composed of cells
-German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
-German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839
All cells come only from preexisting cells
-German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s
Smallest unit of life
4. The Cell 4Chapter 6
Organisms and Cells
Pallisade cells
Squamous epithelial and striated muscle
400X 400X
5. The Cell 5Chapter 6
Sizes of Living Things
In your notes:
•Plant and animal cells have an average size of 50 um
•Bacterial cells are roughly 10 smaller with an average size of 2-5 um
•Virus particles are approx. 100 times smaller than bacterial and have
an average size of 20-50 nm
6. The Cell 6Chapter 6
Cell Size
Size restricted by Surface/Volume (S/V) ratio
Surface is membrane, across which cell
acquires nutrients and expels wastes
Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands
nutrients and produces wastes
As cell grows, volume increases faster than
surface
Cells specialized in absorption modified to
greatly increase surface area per unit volume
In your notes:
•The cell membrane is like the lungs and intestines of a cell.
Therefore the total surface area of the cell membrane must remain
large with respect to the cell contents / volume.
•This will only happen if the cell remains small.
7. The Cell 7Chapter 6
Surface to Volume Ratio
TotalSurfaceArea
6 cm2 (X 4) 24 cm2 (x 4) 96 cm2
TotalVolume
1cm3 ( x 8) 8 cm3 ( x 8) 64 cm3
SurfaceArea/Volume
6 3 1.5
In your notes:
•As the volume of a cube or sphere increases it s total exposed surface area
does not increase proportionally.
•Therefore, as cells get larger less surface area is available for gas
exchange and nutrient and waste exchange
•For this reason cells must remain small. (active cells are generally less
than 50 um in diameter)
Text: p 99
8. The Cell 8Chapter 6
Know your metric measures!
1 m = 100 cm
10-2 m = 1 cm = 10 mm (millimeters)
10-3 m = 1 mm = 1000 um (micrometers)
10-6 m = 1 um = 1000 nm (nanometers)
10-9 m
9. The Cell 9Chapter 6
Microscopes:
Summary:
“There are many different technologies
applied to microscopy”
You will need to differentiate between:
• Light microscopes
• Two types of electron microscopes
• A couple of others, such as Phase contrast,
Imunoflourescence, video enhanced.
10. The Cell 10Chapter 6
Different techniques for viewing cells:
1. Compound Light Microscope
Light passed through specimen
Focused by glass lenses
Image formed on human retina
Max magnification about 1000X
Resolves objects separated by 0.2 mm,
1000X better than human eye
13. The Cell 13Chapter 6
Electron Microscopy
A. Transmission Electron Microscope
Abbreviated T.E.M.
Electrons passed through specimen
Focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
Max magnification 1,000,000s X
Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 mm,
100,000X better than human eye
16. The Cell 16Chapter 6
b. Scanning Electron Microscope
Abbreviated S.E.M.
Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal
Electron beam scanned across surface of
specimen
Metal emits secondary electrons
Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
20. The Cell 20Chapter 6
Two classes of cells.
1. Prokaryotic cells
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Structurally simple
Two of lifes Domains are prokaryotes.
A. Bacteria
Three Shapes
Bacillus (rod)
Coccus (spherical)
Spirilla (spiral)
B. Archaea (“Ancient Bacteria)
Live in extreme habitats (High temp., High salt, toxic gas)
21. The Cell 21Chapter 6
Shapes of Bacterial Cells
In your notes:
Bacteria have three general shapes
1. Cocci = round. 2. Bacilli = rod shaped. 3. Spirochete = spiral shaped.
22. The Cell 22Chapter 6
Prokaryotic Cells: Visual Summary
Particles, not organelles,
Very similar to eukaryotic
But smaller
Fig. 6.5 p97
23. The Cell 23Chapter 6
Prokaryotic Cells:
The Envelope
Cell Envelopes (some have a cell envelope!)
Glycocalyx
- Layer of polysaccharides outside cell wall
- May be slimy and easily removed, or
- Well organized and resistant to removal (capsule)
Cell wall – peptidoyglycans (recall = struct. Carb.)
Plasma membrane (all have plasma membrane)
- Like in eukaryotes
- Form internal pouches (mesosomes)
24. The Cell 24Chapter 6
Cytoplasm
Semifluid solution within the cell
No organelles – only small granules of
stored nutrients called inclusion bodies
Appendages
Flagella – Provide motility
Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that
sprout from the cell surface
Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to
pass DNA from cell to cell
Prokaryotic Cells:
Cytoplasm & Appendages
25. The Cell 25Chapter 6
2. Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Cells are subdivided into specialized
compartments
- All other life forms on earth are eukaryotes
26. The Cell 26Chapter 6
Eukaryotic Cells :
Organelles
Compartmentalization:
Isolates reactions from eachother…..therefore….
Increased efficiency and specialization of reactions
Allows eukaryotic cells to be larger than prokaryotic cells
Two classes of eukaryotic compartments:
1.Endomembrane system:
Organelles that communicate with one another
via membrane channels
Via small vesicles: includes Golgi, Endoplasmic reticulum,
Nucleus, lysosomes, transport vessicles
2. Energy related organelles
Mitochondria & chloroplasts
Have their own DNA and ribosomes
The important advancement of
eukaryotes:
** copy to your notes!
27. The Cell 27Chapter 6
The membrane system of cells
consists of a phospholipid bilayer
Fig. 6.6 p98
28. The Cell 28Chapter 6
Label Diagram!
Integral transmembrane
protein
Peripheral (surface) protein
Phospholipid (f)
(e)
(g)
(i)
29. The Cell 29Chapter 6
Origin of
Eukaryotic Cells
Mesosomes
Surround genetic
material
In your notes:
The endosymbiont hypothesis
for the origin of eukaryotes.
A prokaryote predecessor is
thought to have given rise to
eukaryotes via incorporation
of other advantageous
prokaryotes.
Defn:
Symbiosis = two or more
organisms providing each
other with some advantages.
(p. 517 Chap. 25)
30. The Cell 30Chapter 6
Experimental methods for isolating organelles
and determining their functions.
• Cell fractionation: the breaking apart of cellular
components
• Differential centrifugation: Separation of cell
parts by size and density
Works like spin cycle of washer
The faster the machine spins, the smaller the
parts that settled out
32. The Cell 32Chapter 6
Cell division, separation
of chromosomes
Cellular protection – digestion
of macromolecules from invasive
organisms
Lipid synthesis
Processes packages and
Secretes cell products
Protein synthesis
Cellular respiration
Produces ATP
- enzymes: alcohol deydrogenase
33. The Cell 33Chapter 6
Plant Cell Anatomy
Notes.
Plant cells:
(in addition to animal cell
compartments have)
•Large central vacuole
•Chloroplasts
•Cell walls (cellulose)
• Does not have centrioles
Cell Structure and
Function
34. The Cell 34Chapter 6
Functions
A. Nucleus
The genetic command center of cell, usually
near center
Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
envelope
Consists of double layer of membrane
Nuclear pores permit exchange between
nucleoplasm & cytoplasm
Contains:
Chromatin = semi fluid form of DNA
Chromosomes. Before cells divide, DNA must condense in to
chromosomes
Nucleolus: production center for rRNA
-Produces subunits of ribosomes.
36. The Cell 36Chapter 6
B. Ribosomes
Serve in protein synthesis
Composed of rRNA
Consists of a large subunit and a small
subunit
Subunits made in nucleolus
May be located:
On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby
making it “rough”), or
Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in
groups called polyribosomes
38. The Cell 38Chapter 6
C. Endomembrane System
(Improves efficiency of eukaryotic cells by isolating
mechanisms and reactions to specialized
compartments)
Consists of:
a. Endoplasmic reticulum (both smooth and rough)
b. Golgi apparatus
c. Vesicles
-Several types
-Transport materials between organelles of
system
39. The Cell 39Chapter 6
a. The Endoplasmic Reticulum
i. Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side
Protein anabolism (building proteins)
-Synthesizes proteins
-Modifies proteins
Adds sugar to protein
Results in glycoproteins
ii. Smooth ER
No ribosomes
Synthesis of lipids (triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids)
-modifications occur
In golgi apparatus
40. The Cell 40Chapter 6
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lipids
In smooth ER
Proteins
In rough ER
To golgi apparatus
Fig. 6.11 p105
41. The Cell 41Chapter 6
The Golgi Apparatus
b. Golgi Apparatus
Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
Modifies proteins and lipids
-Packages them in vesicles
-Receives vesicles from ER on cis face
-Prepares for “shipment” in vesicles from
trans face
Within cell
Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
Note:
Learn to recognize in a cellular cartoon.
Remember its function:
Packages and modifies proteins and fats for
shipment elsewhere inside and outside of the cell.
42. The Cell 42Chapter 6
Golgi Apparatus
The golgi receives lipids and proteins
From the rough and smooth ER; they
Are modified in the Golgi and the shipped
Either out of the cell or to other regions
Of the cell
Fig 6.12 p106
43. The Cell 43Chapter 6
The Golgi also constructs
Lysosomes
Lysosomes : vessicles containing hydrolytic enzymes that can digest
cellular debris (damaged organelles), incoming food particles,
phagocytosed foreign cells and viruses.
44. The Cell 44Chapter 6
c. Lysosomes
Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants)
Produced by the Golgi apparatus
Low pH
Contain lytic enzymes
-Digestion of large molecules
-Recycling of cellular resources
-Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like
tadpole losing tail)
Some genetic diseases
Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)
Notes:
Remember the term “Hydrolysis” ?
- lytic
- lysis
- lysosome……….all these terms have something to
do with enzymatically degrading or
taking apart of organic molecules.
Old cells or unspecialized cells have to make way for
newer or more specialized cell………getting rid of old cells
involves a procecess called APOPTOSIS.
45. The Cell 45Chapter 6
Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary
Exocytosis: sends material
out (exits) of the cell.
Lysosome Fig 6.15
p109
46. The Cell 46Chapter 6
Getting proteins into the ER
Sorting:
Fig 17.21 p.352
47. The Cell 47Chapter 6
Plant Cells:
A. Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes
Membrane-bounded vesicles
Enclose enzymes
However
Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in
cytoplasm (instead of ER)
Active in lipid metabolism (break down fats)
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen
peroxide H2O2
-Toxic
-Broken down to water & O2 by catalase
48. The Cell 48Chapter 6
Peroxisomes
Breaks down fats, oils and proteins
to hydrogen peroxide.
More common in plants but also found
in some animal cells (liver).
•Forms a crytaline
core structure of
oxidative enzymes
• Is not formed from
the endomembrane
system (self-replic.)
49. The Cell 49Chapter 6
Plants:
B. Vacuoles
Membranous sacs that are larger than
vesicles
Store materials that occur in excess
Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
Plants cells typically have a central vacuole
Up to 90% volume of some cells
Functions in:
-Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and
waste products
-Development of turgor pressure (ie: plants can be turgid or
flacid)
-Some functions performed by lysosomes in
other eukaryotes
51. The Cell 51Chapter 6
Energy-Related Organelles:
1. Chloroplasts
Captures light energy to drive cellular
machinery
Photosynthesis
Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O
Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon
source Autotrophic
52. The Cell 52Chapter 6
Chloroplast Structure
Bounded by double membrane
Inner membrane infolded
Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are
stacked to form grana
Suspended in semi-fluid stroma
Green due to chlorophyll
Green photosynthetic pigment
Found ONLY in inner membranes of
chloroplast
54. The Cell 54Chapter 6
Energy-Related Organelles:
2. Mitochondria
Bounded by double membrane
Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane that
encloses matrix
Matrix – Inner semifluid containing respiratory
enzymes
Involved in cellular respiration
Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell
56. The Cell 56Chapter 6
The Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell shape
Assists in movement of cell and
organelles
Three types of macromolecular fibers
1. Actin Filaments (small)
2. Intermediate Filaments (medium)
3. Microtubules (bigger)
Assemble and disassemble as needed
57. The Cell 57Chapter 6
The Cytoskeleton:
Actin Filament Operation
Function in cellular movement through
flow and movement of the plasma
membrane.
58. The Cell 58Chapter 6
Intermediate filaments
Bigger – hold shape of organelles – used in cell attachment to other cells.
• Myosin
• Dynein
• Kinesin
59. The Cell 59Chapter 6
The Cytoskeleton:
Microtubule Operation
Alpha and Beta tubulin pairs form hollow cylinders
Can form, unform and reform again. In this way they move
chromosomes into the correct positions for cell division.
Also form major structural component of flagella
61. The Cell 61Chapter 6
Microtubular arrays:
Cilia and Flagella
Microtubules can form into specialized
structures called:
- Cilia
- Flagella
- Both have a unique 9 + 2 pattern.
63. The Cell 63Chapter 6
Review
Cell Theory
Cell Size What restricts cell size?
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles Know the structure and functions of the following:
-Nucleus
-Endomembrane System
-Cytoskeleton
-Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
How are these cells different?
64. A Tour of the
Cell
Chapter 6
Review Chapter Practice Quiz WebCT Quiz
