More Related Content Similar to AP Biology-Ch.6 A Tour of the Cell (20) AP Biology-Ch.6 A Tour of the Cell1. CAMPBELL
BIOLOGY
Reece • Urry • Cain •Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
TENTH
EDITION
6
A Tour of
the Cell
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
2. The Fundamental Units of Life
All organisms are made of cells
The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
All cells are related by their descent from earlier
cells
Cells can differ substantially from one another but
share common features
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4. Concept 6.1: Biologists use microscopes and
the tools of biochemistry to study cells
Cells are usually too small to be seen by the
naked eye
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5. Microscopy
Microscopes are used to visualize cells
In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed
through a specimen and then through glass lenses
Lenses refract (bend) the light, so that the image
is magnified
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6. Three important parameters of microscopy
Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image
size to its real size
Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image,
or the minimum distance of two distinguishable
points
Contrast, visible differences in brightness between
parts of the sample
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7. Figure 6.2
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10 m
1 m
0.1 m
1 cm
1 mm
100 μm
10 μm
1 μm
100 nm
10 nm
1 nm
Human height
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
Chicken egg
Frog egg
Human egg
Most plant and
animal cells
Nucleus
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
Smallest bacteria
Viruses
Ribosomes
Proteins
Lipids
Small molecules
0.1 nm Atoms
Unaided eye
LM
EM
Super-resolution
microscopy
8. Figure 6.2a
10 m
1 m
0.1 m
1 cm
1 mm
100 μm
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Human height
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
Chicken egg
Frog egg
Human egg
Unaided eye
LM
9. Figure 6.2b
100 μm
10 μm
1 μm
100 nm
10 nm
1 nm
Nucleus
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
Smallest bacteria
Viruses
Ribosomes
Proteins
Lipids
0.1 nm Atoms
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Small molecules
LM
Super-resolution
microscopy
EM
Most plant and
animal cells
10. Figure 6.2c
Unaided eye
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Electron microscopy
Light microscopy
Super-resolution
microscopy
Human
height
Length
of some
nerve
and
muscle
cells
Chicken
egg
Frog
egg
Human
egg
Nucleus
Most
plant
and
animal
cells
Most
bacteria
Mito-chondrion
Smallest
bacteria
Viruses
Ribo-somes
Proteins
Lipids
Small
molecules
Atoms
10 m 1 m 0.1 m 1 cm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 μm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm
11. Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about
1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
Various techniques enhance contrast and enable
cell components to be stained or labeled
The resolution of standard light microscopy is too
low to study organelles, the membrane-enclosed
structures in eukaryotic cells
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12. Figure 6.3
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50 μm
10 μm
50 μm
10 μm
1 μm
2 μm 2 μm
Brightfield
(unstained
specimen)
Brightfield
(stained specimen)
Phase-contrast Differential-interference-
contrast
(Nomarski)
Fluorescence Confocal (without) Confocal (with)
Deconvolution
Super-resolution
(without)
Super-resolution
(with)
Scanning
electron
microscopy (SEM)
Transmission
electron
microscopy (TEM)
13. Figure 6.3a
Light Microscopy (LM)
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Brightfield
(unstained specimen)
Brightfield
(stained specimen)
Phase-contrast Differential-interference-
contrast
(Nomarski)
50 μm
15. Figure 6.3ab
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Brightfield
(stained specimen)
50 μm
17. Figure 6.3ad
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Differential-interference-contrast
(Nomarski)
50 μm
18. Figure 6.3b
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Light Microscopy (LM)
Fluorescence
Deconvolution
Confocal (without) Confocal (with)
10 μm
10 μm
50 μm
21. Figure 6.3bc
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Confocal (without)
50 μm
23. Figure 6.3c
Light Microscopy (LM)
Super-resolution (without)
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1 μm
Super-resolution (with)
Scanning
electron
microscopy (SEM)
Transmission
electron
microscopy (TEM)
Electron Microscopy (EM)
2 μm 2 μm
24. Figure 6.3ca
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1 μm
Super-resolution (without)
25. Figure 6.3cb
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1 μm
Super-resolution (with)
26. Figure 6.3cc
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Scanning
electron
microscopy (SEM)
2 μm
27. Figure 6.3cd
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Transmission
electron
microscopy (TEM)
2 μm
28. Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)
are used to study subcellular structures
Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a
beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen,
providing images that look 3-D
Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
TEMs are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells
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29. Recent advances in light microscopy
Confocal microscopy and deconvolution microscopy
provide sharper images of three-dimensional
tissues and cells
New techniques for labeling cells improve resolution
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30. Cell Fractionation
Cell fractionation takes cells apart and
separates the major organelles from one another
Centrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine
the functions of organelles
Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell
function with structure
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31. Figure 6.4
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Homogenate
Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Centrifugation
Supernatant 1,000 g poured into next tube
10 min
20,000 g
20 min
80,000 g
60 min
150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
ribosomes
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
and chloroplasts
Pellet rich in
“microsomes”
Pellet rich in
nuclei and
cellular debris
Differential
centrifugation
32. Figure 6.4a
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Homogenate
Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Centrifugation
33. Figure 6.4b
1,000 g
10 min
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Supernatant poured into next tube
20,000 g
20 min
80,000 g
60 min
150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
ribosomes
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
and chloroplasts
Pellet rich in
“microsomes”
Pellet rich in
nuclei and
cellular debris
Differential
centrifugation
34. Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have
internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions
The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic
or eukaryotic
Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells
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35. Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Basic features of all cells
Plasma membrane
Semifluid substance called cytosol
Chromosomes (carry genes)
Ribosomes (make proteins)
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36. Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
No nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
No membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
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37. Figure 6.5
Bacterial
chromosome
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Fimbriae
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Capsule
Flagella
A typical
rod-shaped
bacterium
(a)
0.5 μm
A thin section through
the bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
(b)
38. Figure 6.5a
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
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Capsule
0.5 μm
A thin section through the bacterium
Bacillus coagulans (TEM)
(b)
39. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
Membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells
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40. The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that
allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and
waste to service the volume of every cell
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41. Figure 6.6
Outside of cell (a) TEM of a plasma membrane
Inside
of cell Carbohydrate side chains
Hydrophilic
region
Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region
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Phospholipid Proteins
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
0.1 μm
42. Figure 6.6a
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Outside of cell
Inside
of cell 0.1 μm
43. Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the
size of cells
The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical
As a cell increases in size, its volume grows
proportionately more than its surface area
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44. Figure 6.7
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Surface area increases while
total volume remains constant
Total surface area
[sum of the surface areas
(height width) of all box
sides number of boxes]
5
1
1
6
150 750
1 125 125
6 1.2
6
Total volume
[height width length
number of boxes]
Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio
[surface area ÷ volume]
45. A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that
partition the cell into organelles
The basic fabric of biological membranes is a
double layer of phospholipids and other lipids
Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles
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46. Figure 6.8a
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Flagellum
Centrosome
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Microvilli
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
NUCLEUS
Plasma
membrane
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
Rough ER Smooth ER
47. Figure 6.8b
NUCLEUS
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Golgi
apparatus
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma
membrane
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Rough ER
Smooth ER
Ribosomes
Central vacuole
Microfilaments
Microtubules
CYTOSKELETON
Chloroplast
Plasmodesmata
Cell wall
Wall of adjacent cell
48. Figure 6.8c
Animal Cells
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Fungal Cells
Plant Cells
Unicellular
Eukaryotes
Human cells from lining
of uterus (colorized TEM)
Yeast cells budding
(colorized SEM)
A single yeast cell
(colorized TEM)
Cells from duckweed
(colorized TEM)
Chlamydomonas
(colorized SEM)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplast
Chlamydomonas
(colorized TEM)
Cell
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Parent
cell
Buds
Cell wall
Vacuole
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
Cell
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Flagella
Vacuole
Cell wall
10 μm
5 μm
5 μm
1 μm
8 μm
1 μm
49. Figure 6.8ca
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Cell
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Human cells from lining
of uterus (colorized TEM)
10 μm
50. Figure 6.8cb
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Yeast cells budding
(colorized SEM)
Parent
cell
Buds
5 μm
51. Figure 6.8cc
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1 μm
A single yeast cell
(colorized TEM)
Cell wall
Vacuole
Nucleus
Mitochondrion
52. Figure 6.8cd
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Cells from duckweed
(colorized TEM)
Cell
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
Nucleolus
5 μm
53. Figure 6.8ce
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8 μm
Chlamydomonas
(colorized SEM)
54. Figure 6.8cf
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplast
Chlamydomonas (colorized TEM)
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Flagella
Vacuole
Cell wall
1 μm
57. Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and
carried out by the ribosomes
The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a
eukaryotic cell
Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to
make proteins
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58. The Nucleus: Information Central
The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and
is usually the most conspicuous organelle
The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
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59. Figure 6.9
1 μm Nucleus
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Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Nucleus
Rough
ER
Chromatin
Nuclear lamina (TEM)
Close-up
of nuclear
envelope
Ribosome
Pore complexes (TEM)
0.25 μm
Pore
complex
0.5 μm
Surface of
nuclear envelope
(TEM)
60. Figure 6.9a
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Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Nucleus
Rough
ER
Chromatin
Pore
complex
Ribosome
Close-up
of nuclear
envelope
61. Figure 6.9b
1 μm
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Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Surface of nuclear envelope
(TEM)
62. Figure 6.9c
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Pore complexes (TEM)
0.25 μm
63. Figure 6.9d
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Nuclear lamina (TEM)
0.5 μm
64. Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus
The nuclear size of the envelop is lined by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of proteins
and maintains the shape of the nucleus
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65. In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete
units called chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA
molecule associated with proteins
The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are
together called chromatin
Chromatin condenses to form discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide
The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is
the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
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66. Ribosomes: Protein Factories
Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal
RNA and protein
Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations
In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
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67. Figure 6.10
Ribosomes
ER
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TEM showing ER
and ribosomes
Free ribosomes in cytosol
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
Diagram of a
ribosome
Computer model
of a ribosome
0.25 μm
68. Figure 6.10a
TEM showing ER
and ribosomes
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Free ribosomes in cytosol
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
Diagram of a
ribosome
0.25 μm
69. Figure 6.10b
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TEM showing ER
and ribosomes
Free ribosomes
in cytosol
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes
bound to ER
0.25 μm
70. Figure 6.10c
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
Computer model
of a ribosome
71. Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system
regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
The endomembrane system consists of
Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Plasma membrane
These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
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72. The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic
Factory
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for
more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
There are two distinct regions of ER
Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
Rough ER, whose surface is studded with
ribosomes
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73. Figure 6.11
Smooth ER
Rough ER Nuclear
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envelope
ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
Transitional
ER
Smooth ER Rough ER
0.20 μm
75. Video: ER and Mitochondria in Leaf Cells
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77. Functions of Smooth ER
The smooth ER
Synthesizes lipids
Metabolizes carbohydrates
Detoxifies drugs and poisons
Stores calcium ions
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78. Functions of Rough ER
The rough ER
Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to
carbohydrates)
Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes
Is a membrane factory for the cell
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79. The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi apparatus
Modifies products of the ER
Manufactures certain macromolecules
Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles
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80. Figure 6.12
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0.1 μm
TEM of Golgi apparatus
Cisternae
Golgi
apparatus
cis face
(“receiving” side of
Golgi apparatus)
trans face
(“shipping” side of
Golgi apparatus)
81. Figure 6.12a
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0.1 μm
TEM of Golgi apparatus
83. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that can digest macromolecules
Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes
are made by rough ER and then transferred to the
Golgi apparatus for further processing
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84. Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and
digests the molecules
Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organelles and macromolecules,
a process called autophagy
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85. Figure 6.13
Lysosome
Food
vacuole
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Plasma
membrane
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
1 μm
(a)
Nucleus
Vesicle containing
two damaged
organelles
Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Vesicle
Digestion
Autophagy: lysosome breaking down
damaged organelles
(b)
Digestion
Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
1 μm
86. Figure 6.13a
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1 μm
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Plasma
membrane
(a)
Nucleus
Digestion
Lysosome
Food
vacuole
Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
88. Figure 6.13b
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Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
Vesicle containing
two damaged
organelles
Lysosome
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle
Autophagy: lysosome breaking down
damaged organelles
(b)
1 μm
89. Figure 6.13ba
Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
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Vesicle containing
two damaged
organelles
1 μm
92. Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER
and Golgi apparatus
Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different
kinds of cells
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93. Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water
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94. Figure 6.14
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5 μm
Central vacuole
Nucleus
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Cytosol
Central
vacuole
95. Figure 6.14a
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5 μm
Nucleus
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Cytosol
Central
vacuole
97. The Endomembrane System: A Review
The endomembrane system is a complex and
dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental
organization
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98. Figure 6.15
Smooth ER
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Nucleus
Rough ER
cis Golgi
trans Golgi
Plasma
membrane
99. Video: ER to Golgi Traffic
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101. Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration,
a metabolic process that uses oxygen to
generate ATP
Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis
Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
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102. The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria
Enveloped by a double membrane
Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
Grow and reproduce somewhat independently
in cells
These similarities led to the endosymbiont
theory
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103. The endosymbiont theory suggests that an early
ancestor of eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen-using
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell
The engulfed cell formed a relationship with the
host cell, becoming an endosymbiont
The endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria
At least one of these cells may have then taken up
a photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into a
chloroplast
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104. Figure 6.16
Endoplasmic
reticulum
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Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope
Ancestor of
eukaryotic cells (host cell)
Engulfing of oxygen-using
nonphotosynthetic
prokaryote, which
becomes a mitochondrion
Nonphotosynthetic
eukaryote
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
At least
one cell
Photosynthetic eukaryote
105. Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells
They have a smooth outer membrane and an
inner membrane folded into cristae
The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP
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106. Figure 6.17
Mitochondrion
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intermembrane
space
Outer
membrane
DNA
Inner
membrane
Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix
Cristae
Matrix
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion
0.1 μm
10 μm
Mitochondria
Mitochondrial
DNA
Nuclear DNA
Network of mitochondria in
Euglena (LM)
(b)
107. Figure 6.17a
Mitochondrion
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Intermembrane
space
Outer
membrane
DNA
Inner
membrane
Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix
Cristae
Matrix
Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion
0.1 μm
(a)
108. Figure 6.17aa
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Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix
0.1 μm
109. Figure 6.17b
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Mitochondria
Mitochondrial
DNA
Nuclear DNA
(b) Network of mitochondria in
Euglena (LM)
10 μm
111. Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
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112. Figure 6.18
Chloroplast
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Ribosomes Stroma
Inner
and outer
membranes
Granum
DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space
Diagram (a) and TEM of chloroplast (b)
Chloroplasts in an
algal cell
1 μm
50 μm
Chloroplasts
(red)
113. Figure 6.18a
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Ribosomes Stroma
Inner
and outer
membranes
Granum
DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast
1 μm
114. Figure 6.18aa
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Stroma
Inner
and outer
membranes
Granum
1 μm
115. Figure 6.18b
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(b) Chloroplasts in an
algal cell
50 μm
Chloroplasts
(red)
116. Chloroplast structure includes
Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
Stroma, the internal fluid
The chloroplast is one of a group of plant
organelles, called plastids
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117. Peroxisomes: Oxidation
Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single membrane
Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and
convert it to water
Peroxisomes perform reactions with many
different functions
How peroxisomes are related to other organelles
is still unknown
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
119. Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of
fibers that organizes structures and activities in
the cell
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm
It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
It is composed of three types of molecular
structures
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
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126. Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility
The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and
maintain its shape
It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility
Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks
provided by the cytoskeleton
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127. Figure 6.21
Motor protein
(ATP powered)
Microtubule
of cytoskeleton
(a)
Motor proteins “walk” vesicles along cytoskeletal
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0.25 μm
fibers.
Microtubule Vesicles
(b) SEM of a squid giant axon
Receptor for
motor protein
Vesicle
ATP
132. Components of the Cytoskeleton
Three main types of fibers make up the
cytoskeleton
Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range
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141. Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in
diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
Functions of microtubules
Shaping the cell
Guiding movement of organelles
Separating chromosomes during cell division
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142. Centrosomes and Centrioles
In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a
centrosome near the nucleus
In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of
centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring
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143. Figure 6.22
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Microtubule
0.25 μm
Centrosome
Centrioles
Longitudinal
section of one
centriole Microtubules
Cross section
of the other centriole
144. Figure 6.22a
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0.25 μm
Longitudinal
section of one
centriole Microtubules
Cross section
of the other centriole
145. Cilia and Flagella
Microtubules control the beating of flagella and
cilia, microtubule-containing extensions that
project from some cells
Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
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146. Figure 6.23
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5 μm
15 μm
(a)
(b)
Motion of flagella
Direction of swimming
Motion of cilia
Direction of organism’s movement
Power
stroke
Recovery
stroke
154. Cilia and flagella share a common structure
A core of microtubules sheathed by the
plasma membrane
A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
A motor protein called dynein, which drives the
bending movements of a cilium or flagellum
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155. Figure 6.24
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0.1 μm
0.5 μm
Cross section of
motile cilium
0.1 μm
Microtubules
Plasma
membrane
Basal
body
Longitudinal section
of motile cilium
(a)
Triplet
(b)
Outer microtubule
doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Radial spoke
Cross-linking
proteins between
outer doublets
Plasma
membrane
(c) Cross section of basal body
156. Figure 6.24a
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0.5 μm
Microtubules
Plasma
membrane
Basal
body
Longitudinal section
of motile cilium
(a)
157. Figure 6.24b
0.1 μm
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Outer microtubule
doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Radial spoke
Cross-linking
proteins between
outer doublets
Plasma
membrane
Cross section of
motile cilium
(b)
158. Figure 6.24ba
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Outer microtubule
doublet
Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Radial spoke
Cross-linking
proteins between
0.1 μm
Cross section of outer doublets
motile cilium
(b)
159. Figure 6.24c
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0.1 μm
Triplet
(c) Cross section of basal body
160. Figure 6.24ca
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0.1 μm
Triplet
(c) Cross section of basal body
163. How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia
Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release
the outer microtubules
Protein cross-links limit sliding
Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets
to curve, bending the cilium or flagellum
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164. Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in
diameter, built as a twisted double chain of
actin subunits
The structural role of microfilaments is to bear
tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell
They form a 3-D network called the cortex just
inside the plasma membrane to help support the
cell’s shape
Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells
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165. Figure 6.25
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Microvillus
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments (actin
filaments)
Intermediate filaments
0.25 μm
166. Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are
arranged parallel to one another
Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate
with the thinner actin fibers
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167. Figure 6.26
Muscle cell
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0.5 μm
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head Chloroplast
(a)
(b)
Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction (c) Cytoplasmic streaming in
plant cells
Amoeboid movement
Extending
pseudopodium
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
Inner cytoplasm
(more fluid)
100 μm
30 μm
168. Figure 6.26a
Muscle cell
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0.5 μm
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head
(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction
170. Figure 6.26b
(b) Amoeboid movement
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Extending
pseudopodium
Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
Inner cytoplasm
(more fluid)
100 μm
172. Figure 6.26c
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Chloroplast
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in
plant cells
30 μm
175. Localized contraction brought about by actin and
myosin also drives amoeboid movement
Cells crawl along a surface by extending
pseudopodia (cellular extensions) and moving
toward them
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176. Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of
cytoplasm within cells
This streaming speeds distribution of materials
within the cell
In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel
transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming
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177. Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments range in diameter from
8–12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
They support cell shape and fix organelles
in place
Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
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178. Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and
connections between cells help coordinate
cellular activities
Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that
are external to the plasma membrane
These extracellular structures are involved in a
great many cellular functions
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179. Cell Walls of Plants
The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular
eukaryotes also have cell walls
The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein
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180. Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
Primary cell wall: Relatively thin and flexible
Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls
of adjacent cells
Secondary cell wall (in some cells): Added
between the plasma membrane and the primary
cell wall
Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent
plant cells
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181. Figure 6.27
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Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Plasmodesmata
1 μm
182. Figure 6.27a
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Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Middle
lamella
1 μm
183. The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the
plasma membrane called integrins
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184. Figure 6.28
Collagen
Fibronectin
Plasma
membrane
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A proteoglycan
complex
Polysaccharide
molecule
Microfilaments
Carbo-hydrates
Core
protein
Proteoglycan
molecule
CYTOPLASM
Integrins
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
185. Figure 6.28a
Collagen
Fibronectin
Plasma
membrane
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A proteoglycan
complex
Microfilaments
CYTOPLASM
Integrins
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
186. Figure 6.28b
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Polysaccharide
molecule
Carbo-hydrates
Core
protein
Proteoglycan
molecule
191. The ECM has an influential role in the lives of cells
ECM can regulate a cell’s behavior by
communicating with a cell through integrins
The ECM around a cell can influence the activity
of gene in the nucleus
Mechanical signaling may occur through
cytoskeletal changes, that trigger chemical signals
in the cell
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192. Cell Junctions
Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ
systems often adhere, interact, and communicate
through direct physical contact
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193. Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant
cell walls
Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from
cell to cell
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194. Figure 6.29
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
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Cell walls
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
195. Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells
Three types of cell junctions are common in
epithelial tissues
At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells
are pressed together, preventing leakage of
extracellular fluid
Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
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196. Figure 6.30
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Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving
across a layer of cells.
Tight
junction
TEM
0.5 μm
Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
Gap
junction
Ions or small
molecules
Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells
Space
between cells
Extracellular
matrix
Desmosome
(TEM)
1 μm
0.1 μm
TEM
Gap junctions
197. Figure 6.30a
Tight junctions
prevent fluid
from moving
across a layer
of cells.
Space
between cells
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Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome
Gap
junction
Ions or small
molecules
Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells
Extracellular
matrix
198. Figure 6.30b
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Tight
junction
TEM
0.5 μm
200. Figure 6.30d
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0.1 μm
TEM
Gap junctions
204. The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of
Its Parts
Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function
For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy
bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes,
and plasma membrane
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206. Figure 6.UN01a
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1 μm
Budding
cell
Mature parent
cell