Gives a very brief review of how to evaluate a case of squint in day to day clinical practice. How to diagnose a basic abnormality of the movement of eye.
Gives a very brief review of how to evaluate a case of squint in day to day clinical practice. How to diagnose a basic abnormality of the movement of eye.
It describes about the procedure of Hess charting. it serves as a great tool to understand the concepts involved. Suitable for optometry course. This is not a routine procedure but an important procedure which is used in diagnosis.
The presentation I have made and uploaded provides you with an in-depth insight into the patterns the strabismus may take following anomalies of extraocular muscles, deformities of the orbital structures,innnervational disturbances.
The author does not assume responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work.
No copyright infringement, or plagiarism intended.
Amrit Pokharel
It describes about the procedure of Hess charting. it serves as a great tool to understand the concepts involved. Suitable for optometry course. This is not a routine procedure but an important procedure which is used in diagnosis.
The presentation I have made and uploaded provides you with an in-depth insight into the patterns the strabismus may take following anomalies of extraocular muscles, deformities of the orbital structures,innnervational disturbances.
The author does not assume responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work.
No copyright infringement, or plagiarism intended.
Amrit Pokharel
Simple report in ophthalmology
Squint Esotropia
by dr. Ali kareem
fifth year medical student in Al Mustansiriyah University College of Medicine\ Baghdad \ IRAQ 2018
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
QA Paediatric dentistry department, Hospital Melaka 2020Azreen Aj
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From navigating policy options to staying informed about industry trends, this comprehensive guide explores everything you need to know about the health insurance market.
Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
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3. NORMAL BINOCULAR DEVELOPMENT
Binocular sensitivity and binocular fusion are
absent at birth.
Afferent from each eye segregate in LGN and 4c
layer of ocular dominance coloumns(ODC) of
striate cortex .
Horizontal binocular connections develop between
ODC’s of each side are weak at birthand become
sharply defined at 3-6 months of age.
Stereopsis emerge in humans during the first 3-5
months of post natal age.
4. BINOCULAR SINGLE VISION
Normal binocular single vision (BSV) involves
the simultaneous use of both eyes with bifoveal
fixation, so that each eye contributes to a common
single perception of the object of regard.
This represents the highest form of binocular
cooperation.
7. CORRESPONDING RETINAL POINTS
Every retinal point or area has a
partner in the fellow retina with
which it shares relative subjective
visual direction.
Image from each eye is
superimposed on each other in
occipital cortex to obtain
binocular single vision.
8. HOROPTER
Imaginary plane in external space, relative to both the
observer's eyes for a given fixation target, all points on
which stimulate corresponding retinal elements and are
therefore seen singly and in the same plane.
This plane passes through the intersection of the visual
axes and therefore includes the point of fixation in BSV.
9.
10. PANUM’S FUSIONAL AREA
The region around the horopter that’s allows single
vision.
Object stimulates slightly non- corresponding points
Objects are not only seen single, but are seen
stereoscopically.
15. SIMULTANEOUS PERCEPTION
Is the most elementary type of binocularity
Occurs when the visual cortex perceives separate
stimuli from the two eyes at the same time and
concerns itself essentially with the absence of
suppression.
16. The two different pictures are seen simultaneously in
the same direction
Differing targets are the superimposed into one
2 - SUPERIMPOSITION
17. Cortical unification of visual stimuli into a single percept
after simultaneous stimulation of corresponding retinal
areas.
Ability of the two eye to produce a composite picture
from two similar pictures ,each of which is incomplete
in one small different detail.
The objects must be similar in shape and size
3 – SENSORY FUSION
18.
19. 4 - STEREOPSIS
It is the ability to fuse images that stimulate horizontally
disparate retinal elements within Panum’s fusional area
resulting in binocular appreciation of visual object in
depth i.e. in the third dimension
Stereopsis occurs when
Retinal disparity is large enough for simple fusion but small
enough not to cause diplopia
22. CONFUSION
Simultaneous appreciation of two superimposed but
dissimilar images caused by stimulation of
corresponding retinal points (usually the foveae) by
images of different objects .
24. DIPLOPIA
Simultaneous appreciation of two images of the
same object in different positions and results from
images of the same object falling on non-
corresponding retinal points.
25. DIPLOPIA
Diplopia. (A) Homonymous (uncrossed) diplopia in right esotropia with
normal retinal correspondence; (B) heteronymous (crossed) diplopia in
right exotropia with normal retinal correspondence
26. SUPPRESSION
Cortical inhibition of visual sensation that originates
from spatially abnormal eye to eliminate the
problem of visual confusion and diplopia.
Pathologic suppression results from strabismic
misalignment of the visual axis
Physiologic suppression occur in eyes with BSV
28. TYPES OF SUPPRESSION
Central v/s peripheral
Monocular v/s alternating
Facultative v/s obligatory
29. TYPES OF SUPPRESSION
1 Central or peripheral.
In central suppression the image from the fovea of the deviating eye is
inhibited to avoid confusion.
Diplopia is eradicated by the process of peripheral suppression, in which
the image from the peripheral retina of the deviating eye is inhibited.
2 Monocular or alternating
. Suppression is monocular when the image from the dominant eye
always predominates over the image from the deviating (or more
ametropic) eye, so that the image from the latter is constantly
suppressed. This type of suppression leads to amblyopia.
When suppression alternates (switches from one eye to the other)
amblyopia is less likely to develop.
3 Facultative or obligatory.
Facultative suppression occurs only when the eyes are misaligned eg-
intermittent exotropia.
Obligatory suppression is present at all times, irrespective of whether the
eyes are deviated or straight.
30. ABNORMAL RETINAL
CORRESPONDENCE
Describes a condition in which originally non-
corresponding retinal areas of the two eyes co-
operate to produce a form of binocular single vision.
The fovea of the fixating eye acquired an
anomalous common visual direction with a
peripheral element in the deviating eye.
31. TYPES OF ARC
HARMONIOUS (HARC) – if the angle of anomaly =
angle of strabismus
UNHARMONIOUS (UN-HARC) – if angle of
anomaly is greater than zero but less than the
angle of deviation
PARADOXICAL (PARC) – if angle of anomaly is in
the opposite direction
32. ECCENTRIC FIXATION
The fovea has lost its principal visual direction
Looking straight at an object stimulates non
foveolar retinal area
Types
Foveal off-center ---1 degree or less (> 0 degrees)
Parafoveal---3 degrees or less (> 1 degree)
Paramacular---5 degrees or less (> 3 degrees)
Peripheral---Greater than 5 degrees
33. TESTS FOR SENSORY ANOMALIES
Visual acuity
Worth four dot test
Bagolini’s test
4 prism base out test
Synaptophore
After image test
Visuoscopy
Test for stereopsis
34. Visual acuity
Fixation behaviour test
Test is performed by seating the child comfortably in
mothers lap
Object, usually a bright colored toy is slowly moved to the
right and to the left.
If the baby can hold fixation on the target and follow it
when the target moves, the visual acuity noted as fix and
follow behaviour.
Each eye is tested separately.
35. CSM method rating monocular fixation
• Done with one eye fixating on a target (examiner’s light)
held at 40 cm (other eye occluded)
• Vision is noted as CSM if-
• C (central) –if each eye fixates centrally, the light
reflex is seen in the center of the pupil.
• S (steady) – holds steady fixation on the target when
it is moved.
• M (maintained)- continues to stay fixated on the target
even if occlusion is removed from the fellow eye.
36. 2 . Preferential looking test-
Two fields are shown to infant ,one
has a striped pattern and the other
one is homogenous
Examiner is hidden behind the
screen and is able to look through
a hole in the screen at the infants
eye.
Infant tends to look more at the
striped pattern.
It is 6/240 in newborn
6/60 at 3 months
6/6 at 36 months
37. Visually evoked response(VER)
VER refers to electro-encephalographic
recordings made from the occipital lobe in
response to visual stimuli
It tells about the integrity of macular & visual
pathway.
Pattern reversal VER is recorded using
patterned stimulus as in checkerboard.
Flash VER is recorded using flash light as
stimulus.
It is 6/120 at 1 month
6/60 at 2 months
6/6-6/12 at 1 year
38. VISUAL ACUITY
At age 2 years, picture naming test such as the
crowded Kay pictures
At age 3 years, most children will be able to
undertake the matching of letter optotypes as in the
Keeler logMAR
Older children –Snellen’s, LogMar chart
39. WORTH FOUR-DOT TEST
a gross test which provides
information only about the status
of peripheral binocular
cooperation
Can be used for distant and near
fixation.
Harmonious ARC= 4 lights
(Deviation)
2 lights (Left suppression)
3 lights (right suppression
5 lights (Diplopia)
40. BAGOLINI STRIATED GLASSES
The Bagolini lenses have fine
barely visible striations, oriented
at 135 degrees before the right
eye and 45 degrees before the
left eye.
Patient is askesd to fixate at
small light.
Each eye perceives an oblique
line.
41. BAGOLINI STRIATED GLASSES
If the two streaks intersect at
their centres in the form of an
oblique cross (an ‘X’), the patient
has BSV if the eyes are straight,
or harmonious ARC in the
presence of manifest strabismus.
If the two lines are seen but they
do not form a cross, diplopia is
present.
If only one streak is seen, there
is no simultaneous perception
and suppression is present.
In theory, if a small gap is seen
in one of the streaks, a central
suppression scotoma
42. 4 PRISM BASE OUT TEST
Usually determines
whether a patient has
bifoveal fixation or a
small suppression
scotoma.
A 4 prism dioptre base
out prism is placed
infront of one eye & a
biphasic movement of
the fellow eye is noted.
43. 4 Δ prism test in bifoveal fixation. (A) Shift of both eyes away from the
prism base; (B) fusional refixation movement of the left eye
4 PRISM BASE OUT TEST
44. 4 PRISM BASE OUT TEST
4 Δ prism test in left microtropia with a central suppression
scotoma. (A) No movement of either eye; (B) both eyes move to
the left but there is absence of re-fixation
45. an instrument for the
assessment of strabismus
and the grade of binocular
vision
SYNOPTOPHORE
46.
47. AFTER-IMAGE METHOD (HERING-BEILSCHOWSKY
TEST)
In clinical practice the test is performed by using a
battery-powered camera flash to produce a vertical
afterimage in one eye and a horizontal afterimage in the
other eye
Resulting afterimage is that of a line with a break in its
middle, which represents the fovea
49. The patient fixates steadily the central mark, first with
one eye while the slit is horizontal and then with the
other eye while the slit is vertical
In a darkened room or with the eyes closed, the patient
sees the two successively imprinted as positive
afterimages (bright lines)
In a lighted room or with the eyes open, negative
afterimages (dark lines) will be seen
50. Then open eyes and look at a plain surface and see if
lines cross
In NRC the after images will coincide
In ARC the after images will be separated
54. TESTS FOR STEREOPSIS
1. TITMUS STEREOTEST
The Titmus test consists of a three-
dimensional Polaroid vectograph
consisting of two plates in the form of
a booklet viewed through Polaroid
spectacles.
The test is performed at a distance
of 40 cm.
Fly is a test of gross stereopsis
(3000 seconds of arc), and is
especially useful for young
children.
The fly should appear to stand out
from the page and the child is
encouraged to pick up the tip of one
of its wings between finger and
thumb.
In the absence of gross stereopsis
the fly will appear as an ordinary flat
photograph.
.
55. 1. TITMUS STEREOTEST
Circles comprise a graded series which tests
fine depth perception. Each of the nine squares
contains four circles.
One of the circles in each square has a degree of
disparity and will appear forward of the plane of
reference in the presence of normal stereopsis. The
disparities measured range from 800 to 40 seconds
of arc.
56. 2. TNO RANDOM DOTS STEREOTEST
The TNO random dot test consists of
seven plates of randomly distributed
paired red and green dots which are
viewed with complementary red-
green spectacles.
Within each plate the dots of one
colour forming the target shape
(squares, crosses etc.) are displaced
horizontally in relation to their paired
dots of the other colour so that they
have a different retinal disparity from
those outside the target.
Some control shapes are visible
even without red-green spectacles
while the test targets are only visible
to an individual with stereopsis, while
wearing red-green spectacles (Fig.
18.19B).
57. . TNO RANDOM DOTS STEREOTEST
• The first three plates are used to establish the
presence of stereoscopic vision and subsequent
plates to quantify it.
• Because there are no monocular clues, the
TNO test provides a truer positive measurement of
stereopsis than the Titmus test, but can give false
negative errors when fusion is poor.
• The disparities measured range from 480 to
15 seconds of arc tested at 40 cm.
Most children are able to do this (and the Frisby
test) from about 4 years of age.
58. 3. LANG STEREOTEST
Consists of card, approx.
the size of a average
post card in which random
dots are incorporated in
paragraph
Cylindrical lenses
laminated onto the surface
of the card are used for
dissociation of the eyes
60. LANG STEREOTEST
Displacement of the dots creates disparity and the
patient is asked to name or point to a simple shape,
such as a star, on the card
The Lang test can often be used to assess
stereopsis in very young children and babies, who
may reach out to touch the pictures.