Sem 1 degree ct assignment 1

Construction Technology
1
( BLD60104)
Name of module: Construction Technology
Report Title: Construcation Analysis
Muhd Syafiq Bin Hj Abd Zariful (0314702)
Rachel Emma Betty Ernesta (0317966)
Farah Bt Zulkifli (0313808)
Parham Farhadpoor (0313698)
Hasan Rubayet (0308941)
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Introduction
The whole world of construction industry now dominated by technological
method; making better decision of choosing material and structural technique
are the most important matters in construction industry. We also need to
develop an understanding of the technological method of building structure.
Study of construction technology helps us to adopt new technologies.
Technology Needs Assessment of current industry equipment, skills,
knowledge, materials, method and this requires a continued and increased
focus on research and development. Construction technology shows us the way
it works. We were given an assignment to analyze a building construction.
By taking the building that the one of the members are residing in as the
object of study, the assignment is broken down into three parts. We were
assigned to illustrate the type of building, identify and explain the type of
construction materials, comparing the construction materials with other types
and also recommending an alternative to replace the existing types of
construction materials.
The purpose of this assignment is to test the ability of students on the
knowledge on roof, slab and foundation (construction materials) and to enhance
the ability of students in application of knowledge, in this case, how to utilize
knowledge learnt in the given condition.
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Table of Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 2
Table of Contents................................................................................................................................... 3
PART 1: The Illustrations of the building (by photos/diagrams/sketches)...................4
PART 2: Explaining and identifying the construction materials of the building
(foundation/slab/roof)..................................................................................................................... 14
PART 3: Compare and Contrast with two other types.........................................................29
PART 3: Potential Alternative........................................................................................................46
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 49
References.............................................................................................................................................. 51
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PART 1: The Illustrations of the building (by
photos/diagrams/sketches)
The assignment is based upon Syafiq's zariful, being one of the member of the
group project, residential house. The house construction started in June 2005
and completed in March 2006. The building is located in Kg Bengkurong, Spg
10-34, in Brunei Darrussalam. It is a one storey residential four bedroom house.
In this part we have provided some illustrations of the building with some
photos / drawings / plans that will help you understand more about the building
structure and layout.
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Digital art:
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Figure 1.0
Figure 1.1

PART 2: Explaining and identifying the construction
materials of the building (foundation/slab/roof)
In this part we will explain and also identify the construction materials of the
building, specifically on foundation, slab, and roof.
Foundation
Foundation is the most important part of construction that provides support to
structures and also transferring loads of buildings to the layers of soil and rock.
So basically foundation is where a building rests on. It is spreading the loads
over a big area of soil and reducing bearing pressure. Foundations can be
divided into two types, shallow like strip foundation and deep such as pilling
foundation. Different types of foundations are used for various conditions and
applications such as, ground conditions, the presence of water, the nature of the
load requiring support, accessibility, and sensitivity to noise and vibration.
Pilling Foundation
Basically piled foundation divides into two parts, piles and pile cap that usually
used for multi-storied buildings. Piles are columns made out of timber, steel, or
concrete deep into the soil or rock to transmit the load through week and
unstable soil conditions. Groups of piles are connected with pile caps in a level
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closer to ground level. Piles divide into end bearing pile, friction pile, and
combination of both which depends on the soil condition under ground level.
Undergo process and principles used for this kind of foundation is same as all
other types and for the beginning 150mm of soil is excavated to get a working
level plus riding the ground of any contaminants. Then places that piles are
going to be drilled are marked on the ground and after that using one of the
ways of pilling that are driven or augured.
Large machines are used to drive piles into the ground that works like a huge
hammer to reach the required depth. 3 meters long is standard size of piles and
they are fixed on top of each other for deeper cases. Another way is to augured
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Figure 2.0

piles into the ground where machines drill into the ground to get to the required
depth plus removing the materials and pushing them further into the earth. After
drilling process, concrete is poured and the tube is maneuvered out of the hole,
then tubular formworks in concrete act as reinforcement.
Based on the house specifically and base on the pictures provided, taken during
the construction, it was found that the foundation used for the building is pile.
Pile foundation is mostly used for multi storied buildings and this house is a
single storey bungalow. After more investigation, it was also found that soil
investigation was carried out by the contractor. Hard ground was found to be
present at a great depth by boring two holes and collecting soil samples.
Therefore it was recommended by the engineer to use R.C. piles because of the
existence of the hard ground. During construction, the average penetration
depth of the piles was 18 meters as per information provided to us by the owner
of the house.
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SLAB
Reinforced Concrete Slab
Figure 3.0
Figure 1 shows the diagram of reinforcement concrete slab. Retrieved from
http://www.radiantcompany.com/details/grade.shtml.
Concrete is made up of water, Portland cement, sand and coarse aggregates
combined together in a mixture that when hardened it is able to withstand
compressive forces.
The character of the concrete is that it is strong in compression but weakest in
tension. In order to remedy the situation, high-yield steel reinforcement bars are
embedded to the structure to resist the tensile forces. The reinforcement bars
are deformed and ribbed to provide good bonding between the concrete and
steel materials.
The combination of concrete and the steel reinforcement forms a reinforced-
concrete structure that is able to withstand both the compressive and tensile
forces under applied forces.
The house consists of upper Suspended reinforced concrete slab and ground
floor slab. The ground floor can be 100-300mm thick approximately and is laid
450 above ground level as indicated in the cross sectional drawings. The slab
on the ground floor is likely to be laid that amount of millimeters above gound
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level in order to avoid flooding.
The upper floor is made up of suspended reinforced slab. It is a unit supported
by columns and walls and not laid directly on the ground. It provides an
elevation and allows the residential house to extend vertically using less surface
area or land area.
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The reinforced-concrete floor slab is more expensive than a mass concrete floor
slab because the mass concrete structure does not have the steel
reinforcement added to it, the price of which can be very costly.
Both types of slab construction is cast in situ at the building site using formwork,
a type of wooden boxing into which the wet concrete is poured in.
Figure 4.0 shows placement of reinforcement steel before the pouring of
concrete.
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Figure 4.0

The advantages of using the reinforced-concrete design for the
slabs are as follows:
1) The reinforced-concrete design is much cheaper to be used than the
fabricated concrete version
2) It is simpler to implement the reinforced-concrete works at site because it
requires minimal machinery such as cranes, etc. and the ease of adopting this
design makes the site progress of structural works speedier.
3) Less likely cases of leakages at the wet areas such as toilets, open space
corridors, etc.
The disadvantages of the reinforced-concrete works are as follows:
1) It is costlier than the mass concrete slabs because of the high costs of steel.
2) The in situ nature of the works require many workers whereas the
prefabricated concrete works use minimal site workforce
3) The quality of the prefabricated concrete that is manufactured in the
controlled factory environment is more superior to that of the in situ reinforced
concrete works which are highly dependent on the workers' skills.
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ROOF
The type of pitched roof identified in this project is a hipped roof. The hip is
joined from corners to the ridge. It is constructed using nailed-gang truss.
Pitched roof design is from 10 to 70 degrees. 70 degrees or more it will be
considered as a wall. 10 degrees and less it will be considered a floor. It is
made from sawn structural softwood. The advantage of a pitched roof is to
allow shedding of rain water and due to its triangle construction for which
creates a void, it allows extra space for water storage services and even usable
space such as attic space which is approximately from 35 degrees to 70
degrees.
Roof requirement:
 Be able to provide a level of fire resistance
 Resist the passage of moisture from outside to the interior of the building
 To provide heat and sound insulation
Pitched roof
The chosen building contains a simple hipped design with the pitch being fairly
high. The more corners the building layout has will influence the complexity of
the roof design and difficulty of construction. It requires a lot of workmanship to
build than any other
timber roof
construction.
The design may have
been preferred than
other types because a
hipped roof can provide
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Figure 5.0

a level of protection from rain and prevailing winds in all faces or corners
however a gable roof depending on the pitch it can only provide a degree of
protection on two sides with the aid of eaves.
A hipped roof contains four faces and as mentioned above, it is joined to the
ridge board or the center from the corners by hips.
Hipped roof is a pitched roof that is more expensive initially than flat roof during
construction stage however less expensive in maintenance than a flat roof.
As seen in diagram 1 the hipped roof is constructed using trusses.
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ROOF
LAYOUT PLAN
AND
SECTION THRU’ ROOF OF CASE OF STUDY
The hipped roof design consists of structural members, covering
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and
• TIMBER ROOF TRUSS
Truss construction is structural members based on the principles of triangulation
with the roof members being rigid and connected together by different types of
joinery. Roof truss can be made of timber or steel.
Timber roof truss can be identified as the method of roof construction for this
particular project. Truss design is subject to the span, area of the layout and
load being transmitted. Trusses can be spaced at 1800mm alternates.
It is commonly used in larger spans whereby the load is transmitted solely to the
load bearing walls and the internal wall can be used as non-load bearing walls
or partitions. . Bolt connecters and timber connectors are used to connect the
structural sawn timber softwood together.
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Figure 6.0 composition of hipped
roof design

Figure 7.0
The table below shows the types of trusses used in the
construction of the project’s specific hipped roof
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Figure 8.0

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A howe girder trusss
is defined as a truss
consisting of a veritical
and angled
supportive/structural
members The type of
truss used is a Howe
Girder Truss king
post and from the king
post there are
alternate
The end framing Is
made up of
truncated girder
truss which supports
the jack rafter and hip
of the hipped roof
Jack truss. A
number of trapezoidal
trusses for supporting
those areas of a hip
roof not beneath the
peak or ridge, parallel
to the truss or trusses
that meet at the peak
or ridge.
Figure3. Howe Girder truss as common
roof truss

The structural strusses are accompanied by other materials in
order to have an effective roof design
• INSULATION
Mineral wool insulation is a material with high acousitc and sound insulation
properties Mineral wool is made from molten glass, stone or slag that is spun
into a fiber-like structure.
• COVERING
The type of roof covering used is metal roof tiling.the owner’s peference as
oppose to other type of covering is because tiling provides as more as an
aesthetic, for its durability and its level of protection from external weather
conditions such as rain and moisture, sun and prevailing winds.
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• MOISTURE CONTROL
Sisalation foil was used specifically in the building of the roof to enable a level of
moisture form penetrating into the interior.
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PART 3: Compare and Contrast with two other types
FOUNDATION
In this part we will be comparing the construction materials that are foundation,
slab, and roof, with two other different types of each of them.
Foundation
1. Pad Foundation:
Pad foundation is used to support an individual point load such as that due to a
structural column. They may be circular, square or reactangular. They usually
consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they may be stepped or
haunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy column. Pad
foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be used.
The size of the foundation can be reduced by adding steel reinforcement
towards the bottom of the foundation running in both directions
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2. Raft Foundation:
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large
area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used when column
loads or other structural
loads are close together and individual pad foundations would interact.
A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the
entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the
foundation.
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Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as
the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions.
They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as
they can spread the loads over a larger area.
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Thus after explaining about the other two types of foundation we created a
table for comparison between them and the foundation used in the building.
Pile foundation Pad foundation Raft foundation
Costing
The most
expensive and
the strongest type
of foundation.
The least expensive
among the other two
(Pile foundation and
Raft foundation)
It is more expensive
than pad foundation
but cheaper than pile
foundation
Strength/Quality
Strongest type of
foundation
Pad foundation is not
as strong as pile
foundation,
considered the
weakest among the
other two (Pile
foundation and Pad
foundation)
Stronger than Pad
foundation but not as
strong as Pile
foundation
Machinery
Requires big
machineries such
as bigger cranes to
build something big
(skyscrapers, etc.)
This type is easier to
construct and don’t
need some
machineries that are
required for pile
foundation.
need some
required for pile
foundation.
Labour
Requires
specialist
engineering to do
Pile foundation
Skilled workers not
really needed,
depending on the
building
Needs skilled workers
sometimes, but not as
skilled as to do Pile
foundation depending
on the building
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Sustainability/Re
sistance
Better
resistance/bearing
capacity compare
to the other types
Considered having
lower resistance
compared to Raft
foundation and Pile
foundation
Raft foundation
resistance is higher
compare to other types
except pile foundation
Time
Requires more
time to build
The quickest to be
done compared to the
other two (Pile and
Pad Foundation)
Faster to be done than
Pile foundation but not
as quick as Pad
foundation
SLAB
1. Mass Concrete Slab:
Figure 9.0
Figure 2 shows the diagram of cross section of mass concrete slabs. Retrieved
from http://www.selfbuildselfhelp.com/Advice/Design/Floor.htm.
Mass concrete floor slab is made up of lower strength concrete derived by
mixing water with the constituents of lower ratio of cement-sand-coarse
aggregates such as 1:3:6 and there is no steel reinforcement added to the slab.
It is used mainly as ground floor slabs of a small house where the underlying
subsoil conditions is good and able to sustain the bearing pressure of the
applied loadings.
Since there is no reinforcement embedded in the structure, it is critical that the
subgrade preparation is properly done and well compacted before the hard-core
materials are poured onto the treated subgrade.
It is the cheapest form of concrete slab but its use is however limited.
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Figure 10.0
Figure 10.0 shows the mass concrete slabs without the embedded
reinforcement steel .Retrieved from http://fowlerconcrete.com/industrial.htm
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2.Prefabricated Concrete Slab
Figure 11.0
Figure 11.0 shows the diagram of prefabricated concrete slabs. Retrieved from
http://redsunhangxanh.blogspot.com/2011_12_01_archive.html.
Prefabricated concrete floor slabs on the other hand are built in a factory and transported to
the site by lorries and placed at their correct positions in the structure with the help of
cranes. This is the most expensive type of floor slab construction because basically it is
similar to the reinforced-concrete structure however it is constructed in a controlled
environment in the factory.
Figure 12.0
Figure 12.0 shows the prefabricated concrete slabs that are stacked in the factory.
They are manufactured in the factory and inspected for quality control before
sending to the site. Retrieved from http://www.spcind.com/usr/product.aspx?
id=189.
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Thus after explaining about the other two types of foundation we created a
table for the comparison between them and the foundation used in the
building.
Reinforced
concrete slab
Mass concrete
slab
Prefabricated
concrete slab
Costing
The reinforced-
concrete design is
much cheaper to be
used than the
fabricated concrete
version.
It is the cheapest form
of concrete slab but its
use is however limited.
The most expensive
among all the others.
Strength/Quality
The strength is more
superior to that of
Mass concrete slab.
Considered as the
weakest from the other
two (Reinforced
concrete slab and
Prefabricated concrete
slab).
Stronger than
Reinforced concrete
slab and Mass
concrete slab.
Machinery
Requires minimal
machinery such as
cranes.
need some
required for
Prefabricated concrete
slab.
Needs lorries to
transport the concrete
floor slabs to the
construction site.
Labour Needs skilled workers
sometimes, but not as
skilled as to do
Prefabricated
concrete slab
Skilled workers not
really needed.
Requires very skilled
workers and therefore
it is expensive.
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depending on the
building.
Sustainability/Re
sistance
Reinforced concrete
slab resistance is
higher compare to
other types except
Prefabricated
concrete slab.
Considered having
lower resistance
compared to Mass
concrete and
Reinforced concrete.
Better resistance
compare to the other
types.
Time
Prefabricated
concrete slab requires
some transport unlike
Reinforced concrete
slab which is faster.
The quickest to be
done compared to the
other two (Mass
concrete slab and
Reinforced concrete
slab).
Duration of
construction is more
than the other two
slabs as it requires
some transport.
Roof
1. Gable Roof:
Gable roof end is a pitched roof sloping on two sides. The ridge board which
is considered as the spine of the roof runs along the center and the peak of
the roof. The common rafters are nailed to the ridge board and slope
downwards to the external walls resting on the wall plate in a birdsmouth
joint. The battens are placed horizontally on the rafters on the opposite
direction to receive the appropriate covering.
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Figure 13.0 shows cross section of typical gable roof. Retrieved from
http://www.carpentry-pro-framer.com/gable-roof-framing.html
It is especially used in areas where the climatic conditions are rainy and
contains high prevailing winds. Gable roof contains more brickwork to
provide the gable end. The gable end or gable face can be made up of
brickwork or timber cladding. The extra brickwork provides faces to the
building. Gable roof is preferred over other types of roof because the two
inclination meeting at the ridge board hence less woodworking.
The degree of slope provides additional spacing underneath where it is used for
water storage cistern, and services.
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Brunei is a country whereby its climatic conditions are humid, hot and containing
heavy downpour throughout the year. This principle and this roof construction
method can be proved ideal for another roof alternative to be considered for our
case of study for Pitched roof is based on the principle of cold air-sink and hot
air rises especially gable end attic roof.
Furthermore it is easier to maintain and is less likely to leak. Unlike a flat roof,
the replacement of tile covering or timber will be easy for they are made of
singular individual units.
2. Mastic asphalt Reinforced Concrete Flat Roof:
The factors that are included in choosing this flat roof will depend on the
availability of the material, supplier and the installation of the roof. Mastic
asphalt consists of a type of aggregate in combination with bitumen which are
heated and transformed to almost liquid state.
It is most advised to apply or install an isolated membrane before the mastic
asphalt is laid.
Casting should be done appropriately and not transported to far from heating
source for it will solidify. Therefore transportation should be kept to a minimum.
A constant issue with flat roof is that measures should be taken to ensure that
pooling or any defects such as cracking and a depression does not occur in
order to maximize its longevity and minimize the amount of times required for
maintenance hence minimizing cost. Sufficient inclination should be provided to
allow water to flow off.
Advantages of flat roof are that it can be used for additional space for
recreational activities or lounging.
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Flat roof in general can be used as a space to grow produce and do additional
gardening which is encouraged due to greenhouse effect and climate change.
It can also be used to provide an area water catchment facilities and water
storage cisterns. It is especially preferred in hot climatic conditions whereby
rainfall does not occur frequently and hence any need for pitched roof. On the
other hand, flat roof are prone to dusting.
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Thus after explaining about the other two types of roof we created a table for
the comparison between them and the roof used in the building.
Pitched Roof
Reinforced Concrete
Flat Roof
Gable Roof
Costing
Cheaper than Gable roof
because Gable roof
requires some
waterproofing for the
brickwall
A constant issue with flat
roof is that measures
should be taken to
ensure that pooling or
any defects such as
cracking and a
depression does not
occur in order to
maximize its longevity
and minimize the amount
of times required for
maintenance hence
minimizing cost. It is
easier and cheaper than
Gable Roof.
More costlier than
Pitched roof because it
requires some
waterproofing for the
brickwall
Strength/Q
uality
Considered the weakest
among the other two
(Reinforced Concrete Flat
Roof and Gable Roof)
High risk of leakage
It is especially used in
areas where the
climatic conditions are
rainy and contains high
prevailing winds.
Machinery
No special machineries
required
Requires some special
machineries for transport
No special machineries
required
Labour No skilled workers required
The work involves more
on concrete work
Less woodworking of
structural timber than
hipped roof
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Sustainabil
ity/Resista
nce
the replacement of tile
covering or timber will be
easy for they are made of
singular individual units,
but it has a higher risks of
getting leaks than Gable
roof
It is especially preferred
in hot climatic conditions
whereby rainfall does not
occur frequently and
hence any need for
pitched roof. On the
other hand, flat roof are
prone to dusting.
It is easier to maintain
and is less likely to
leak, unlike a flat roof.
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PART 3: Potential Alternative
Raft foundation
Raft foundation was chosen as an ideal substitute or alternative. Initially piling is
the type of foundation used based on the condition of the existing substrata
being softer on the surface. Based on the same concept, raft foundation was
chosen for its ability to spread load over a large surface area, hence influencing
our decision in choosing this type of foundation.
Raft foundation can be more economical for when casted it requires less
machinery heavy machinery than piling.
Figure 14.0 The diagram shows how clumns can be included in the raft
foundation
http://architecturalguidance.blogspot.com/2008/04/architectural-
presentation-raft.html
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Less settlement and cracking would occur for the building on the raft foundation
acts as a single unit.
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Prefabricated floor slab
Prefabrication concrete slab is chosen as an alternative for the building, have
many advantages of construction. However this type of slab benefits is more
than just construction process. Prefabrication concrete slab provides high levels
of inherit fire resistance. Furthermore the hollow cores located in this type of
slab provide an exelent sound resistance too. The floor slabs are manufactured
offsite to rigorous quality standards. We concluded that choosing this type of
floor slab is a better quality in terms of strength and resistance.
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Figure 15.0

Gable Roof
Gable roof was found to be a better alternative than reinforced concrete roof
because of the reasons mentioned below.
Even though a hipped roof is proved to be stronger and contains less brickwork
than gable end roof. Gable end roof offers a much more economical type of roof
than hipped roof. This choice was also chosen rather than that of a reinforced
concrete flat roof due to the consideration that whether the existing foundation
being piling could sustain its load given that the piling was designed to sustain a
hipped roof made of timber initially hence it would likely to sustain another
timber pitched roof than a mastic asphalt flat roof made of reinforced concrete
slab.
Furthermore a gable end roof is ideal due to heavy rainfall in the area gable roof
allows shedding of rainwater.
The angle of the pitch allows loft space for more indoor use, Storage for cisterns
and other services. It carries a more architectural and aesthetic value by adding
character to the building. But this depends on the owners’ preference.
Other reasons include:
• Less woodworking and usage of structural timber than hipped roof.
• Simple in plan and more economical to build than hipped roof.
Conclusion
In conclusion the construction methods will vary and will be influenced by the
types the level of protection from external conditions namely climatic with the
cost and availability of material playing another vital role in the design and
construction process or phase.
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The assignment has enabled us to study different types of potential alternative
to best fit our chosen building of study.
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References
Reference for Foundation
1) FIORICompany. (n.d.). PILING, FOUNDATION
& SOIL STABILIZATION. Retrieved June 8,2014 from http://www.fiorigro
up.com/applications/piling-foundation/
2) Designing Buildings Wiki Ltd. (2014). Pile
Foundation. Retrieved June 8,
2014 from http://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Pile_found ations
3) Northumbria University.(n.d. ). Pile Foundations. Retrieved June 9,
2014 from
http://nuweb2.northumbria.ac.uk/bedemo/Domestic_Foundation/page_13
.htm
Reference for Slab
1) Assakkaf, I. (2004), Reinforced Concrete [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved
June 7, 2014 from
http://www.assakkaf.com/courses/ence454/lectures/chapter4.pdf
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2) McCormac, J., C., & Nelson, J., K. (2006), Design of Reinforced
Concrete . Retrieved June 7, 2014 from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/88859325/Design-of-Reinforced-Concrete-
7th-Edition
3) Anderson, L., O., (n.d.), Concrete floor slabs on ground . Retrieved June
7, 2014 from http://www.oldhouseweb.com/how-to-advice/concrete-floor-
slabs-on-ground.shtml
4) Flasch, J., (n.d.), Concrete, Block, and Slab Foundations. Retrieved
June 7, 2014 from http://www.bobvila.com/articles/442-concrete-block-
and-slab-foundations/#.U5e5afmSwtB
Reference for Roof
1) Bibliography: FG Forrest, 1. (2014). Products > Technical Section > Roof
Covering | KB - BLOK systém, s.r.o. Kb-blok.cz. Retrieved 17 June 2014,
from http://www.kb-blok.cz/en/products/technical-section/roof-
covering.shtml
References
1) Howe Girder [Photograph]. (n.d.). Retrieved June 9, 2014, from
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http://www.birminghamzoo.com/animals/
2) Builder Bil. (n.d.). Graphical Construction Glossary >> Roofs And
Roofing. >> Roof Types >> Howe Truss. Retrieved June 9, 2014,
from http://www.builderbill-diy-help.com/howe-truss.html.
3) American Pole & Timber. (n.d.). Structural Timber Trusses. Retrieved
June 10, 2014, from http://www.americanpoleandtimber.com/prod-
structural-timber-trusses.shtml.
4) G&G Custom Metal Fab LLC [Photograph]. (2012). Timber Connectors 2.
Retrieved June 10, 2014,
from http://ggcustommetalfab.com/gallery/welcome-to-gg-custom-metal-
fab-llc/imag0326/
5) jack truss. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved June 15, 2014,
from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/jack
truss
6) Mineral wool. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved June 16, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_wool.
7) The Concrete Society. (n.d.). Suspended floors. Retrieved June
17, 2014, from http://www.concrete.org.uk/fingertips_nuggets.asp?
cmd=display&id=245
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54 | P a g e

Sem 1 degree ct assignment 1

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