IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis or UV/Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent ranges.
This document discusses chemical shifts in NMR spectroscopy. It explains that chemical shifts occur due to shielding or deshielding of protons by electrons, which causes absorption positions to shift upfield or downfield. The difference between a sample proton's absorption position and a reference proton's position is measured in ppm. Tetramethylsilane (TMS) is commonly used as an internal reference standard at 0.5% concentration. Factors that affect chemical shifts include inductive effects, van der Waals deshielding, anisotropic effects, and hydrogen bonding.
This document discusses the principles, instrumentation, and applications of a dispersive infrared spectrophotometer. It describes how this type of IR spectrometer works by using radiation sources like globars or Nernst glowers, monochromators to separate wavelengths, and detectors like photo detectors or thermal detectors to analyze the absorbed infrared wavelengths. Key applications of dispersive IR spectrophotometers include identifying organic and inorganic compounds by their functional groups and determining molecular structure and orientation. However, it also notes some disadvantages like slower scan speeds and less sensitivity compared to Fourier transform IR spectrometers.
NMR, principle and instrumentation by kk sahu sirKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
History
Principle
Assembly
Solvents
Chemical shift
Factors affecting chemical shift
2D NMR
NOE effect
NOESY
COSY
Application
Conclusion
References
This document provides a troubleshooting guide for eRAN faults. It describes the general troubleshooting process and common maintenance functions used to diagnose faults. These include user tracing, interface tracing, switchover/reset, and establishing an emergency OM channel. The guide then covers how to troubleshoot specific fault types, such as access faults, intra-RAT handover faults, service drops, rate faults, cell unavailability faults, and more. Diagnosis methods include determining the fault scope, identifying causes, and rectifying the fault.
This document discusses infrared (IR) spectroscopy and how it can be used to analyze molecules. It provides background on IR radiation and spectroscopy. Key points:
1) IR spectroscopy analyzes the vibrational and rotational motions of molecules when exposed to IR radiation. Molecules will absorb specific wavelengths that match their internal vibrational energy levels.
2) For a vibration to be IR active, it must induce a change in the dipole moment of the molecule. Asymmetric vibrations like stretches and bends are usually IR active, while symmetric vibrations are often IR inactive.
3) An IR spectrum shows the percentage of IR radiation transmitted through a sample versus the wavelength or wavenumber. Absorption peaks
This document discusses automated analysis and its advantages. It describes the need for automation to process large sample volumes efficiently and precisely. The objectives of automation are outlined as facilitating analysis, reducing human error, and lowering costs. Two main types of automated systems are described: discrete analyzers that keep samples separate, and continuous-flow analyzers like flow injection analysis where samples mix in a flowing stream. Key aspects of flow injection analysis include its instrumentation, sample transport and separation techniques. Other automation techniques discussed include discrete automatic systems, automatic sampling, and using robotics.
Advances in Ion Selective Electrodes(ISE) Nur Fatihah
The document summarizes a group project on advances in ion selective electrodes. It discusses the different types of ion selective electrodes including glass membrane electrodes, solid state electrodes, liquid membrane electrodes, and gas sensing electrodes. It describes the key parameters that characterize ion selective electrodes such as sensitivity, selectivity, detection limit, and response time. The document also discusses various applications of ion selective electrodes for online, on-site, and in vivo potentiometric measurements. Recent advances in the applications of ion selective electrodes in areas such as agriculture, pollution control, food quality control, medical diagnostics, and industrial production are highlighted.
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-Vis or UV/Vis) refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent ranges.
This document discusses chemical shifts in NMR spectroscopy. It explains that chemical shifts occur due to shielding or deshielding of protons by electrons, which causes absorption positions to shift upfield or downfield. The difference between a sample proton's absorption position and a reference proton's position is measured in ppm. Tetramethylsilane (TMS) is commonly used as an internal reference standard at 0.5% concentration. Factors that affect chemical shifts include inductive effects, van der Waals deshielding, anisotropic effects, and hydrogen bonding.
This document discusses the principles, instrumentation, and applications of a dispersive infrared spectrophotometer. It describes how this type of IR spectrometer works by using radiation sources like globars or Nernst glowers, monochromators to separate wavelengths, and detectors like photo detectors or thermal detectors to analyze the absorbed infrared wavelengths. Key applications of dispersive IR spectrophotometers include identifying organic and inorganic compounds by their functional groups and determining molecular structure and orientation. However, it also notes some disadvantages like slower scan speeds and less sensitivity compared to Fourier transform IR spectrometers.
NMR, principle and instrumentation by kk sahu sirKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
History
Principle
Assembly
Solvents
Chemical shift
Factors affecting chemical shift
2D NMR
NOE effect
NOESY
COSY
Application
Conclusion
References
This document provides a troubleshooting guide for eRAN faults. It describes the general troubleshooting process and common maintenance functions used to diagnose faults. These include user tracing, interface tracing, switchover/reset, and establishing an emergency OM channel. The guide then covers how to troubleshoot specific fault types, such as access faults, intra-RAT handover faults, service drops, rate faults, cell unavailability faults, and more. Diagnosis methods include determining the fault scope, identifying causes, and rectifying the fault.
This document discusses infrared (IR) spectroscopy and how it can be used to analyze molecules. It provides background on IR radiation and spectroscopy. Key points:
1) IR spectroscopy analyzes the vibrational and rotational motions of molecules when exposed to IR radiation. Molecules will absorb specific wavelengths that match their internal vibrational energy levels.
2) For a vibration to be IR active, it must induce a change in the dipole moment of the molecule. Asymmetric vibrations like stretches and bends are usually IR active, while symmetric vibrations are often IR inactive.
3) An IR spectrum shows the percentage of IR radiation transmitted through a sample versus the wavelength or wavenumber. Absorption peaks
This document discusses automated analysis and its advantages. It describes the need for automation to process large sample volumes efficiently and precisely. The objectives of automation are outlined as facilitating analysis, reducing human error, and lowering costs. Two main types of automated systems are described: discrete analyzers that keep samples separate, and continuous-flow analyzers like flow injection analysis where samples mix in a flowing stream. Key aspects of flow injection analysis include its instrumentation, sample transport and separation techniques. Other automation techniques discussed include discrete automatic systems, automatic sampling, and using robotics.
Advances in Ion Selective Electrodes(ISE) Nur Fatihah
The document summarizes a group project on advances in ion selective electrodes. It discusses the different types of ion selective electrodes including glass membrane electrodes, solid state electrodes, liquid membrane electrodes, and gas sensing electrodes. It describes the key parameters that characterize ion selective electrodes such as sensitivity, selectivity, detection limit, and response time. The document also discusses various applications of ion selective electrodes for online, on-site, and in vivo potentiometric measurements. Recent advances in the applications of ion selective electrodes in areas such as agriculture, pollution control, food quality control, medical diagnostics, and industrial production are highlighted.
Radar 2009 a 2 review of electromagnetism3Forward2025
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association for electronic engineering and electrical engineering. Founded in 1963, IEEE has over 420,000 members in over 160 countries and publishes over 200 transactions, journals and magazines. IEEE sets standards for electric power, telecommunications, computer engineering, medical technology, biotechnology, and aerospace among other fields.
This document provides an introduction and overview of a presentation on modern warfare techniques. It discusses biological warfare, nuclear warfare, developments in military robots, electronic warfare, and cyber-terrorism. The presentation was delivered by a group of 8 students for their class on modern future weapons. The introduction defines weapons as both a source of agitation due to their destructive nature but also excitement due to their power. It traces the evolution of increasingly sophisticated weapons throughout history, from early mechanical weapons to today's focus on cyber warfare and biological weapons.
Radar 2009 a 6 detection of signals in noiseForward2025
This document summarizes a lecture on radar signal detection. It discusses detecting signals in noise, the radar detection problem, basic target detection tests, and how detection performance is affected by factors like signal-to-noise ratio and number of integrated pulses. It outlines concepts like probability of detection, probability of false alarm, and the tradeoff between the two. Integration of multiple pulses can improve performance through coherent or non-coherent integration. Fluctuating targets are also addressed.
This document summarizes a lecture on radar clutter. It discusses different types of clutter sources including ground, sea, rain, and birds. It provides details on the attributes of rain clutter such as how it is affected by wavelength and circular polarization. Graphs are presented showing reflectivity of rain and its Doppler spectrum. Bird clutter properties around radar cross-section, velocity, and density are also covered. The document aims to explain the impact of various clutter sources on radar performance.
This document provides an overview of a course on radar systems engineering to be presented by Dr. Robert O'Donnell. The course was initially developed in 2000 for engineers and scientists with little radar experience. It covers core topics in radar fundamentals and subsystems over multiple lectures. The course has evolved significantly and now includes additional material on radar applications. It is intended to provide students a broad understanding of radar principles and issues. Copyrighted material from MIT Lincoln Laboratory and industry will be used with permission.
This document contains lecture slides about radar signal propagation through the atmosphere. It discusses various propagation effects including reflection from the Earth's surface, atmospheric refraction, multipath interference, and attenuation. It provides equations for calculating propagation losses and phase differences between direct and reflected signals. Examples are given of how propagation affects radar coverage and detection range for a shipborne surveillance radar system.
This document contains 20 slides from a lecture on radar systems and the radar equation. The slides cover topics such as the basic components of a radar system, definitions of terms like radar cross section, development of the radar range equation, sources of noise, and examples of how radar performance scales with different design parameters. Key aspects of the radar equation like transmitter power, antenna size, range, losses, and noise temperature are discussed across the slides.
This document discusses various methods for calculating radar cross section (RCS), including the finite difference time domain method, method of moments, geometrical optics, physical optics, geometrical theory of diffraction, and physical theory of diffraction. It provides overviews and comparisons of each method, explaining their approaches and areas of applicability. The document also includes examples of RCS calculations and summaries of key points about specific methods.
This document provides an overview of radar cross section (RCS) and techniques for predicting a target's RCS through both measurement and theoretical calculation. It begins with definitions of RCS and factors affecting it. Examples of typical RCS values for different targets are given. Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to a target's RCS are described. Both full-scale and scale model target measurement techniques are outlined. Theoretical prediction methods including geometrical optics, physical optics, and diffraction theories are introduced. Scaling laws for applying results from scale models to full-scale targets are also covered.
Radar 2009 a 16 parameter estimation and tracking part2Forward2025
This document summarizes a lecture on parameter estimation and tracking. It discusses tracking processes like track association, initiation, maintenance through prediction and updating, and termination. Filtering techniques like the Kalman filter are presented as ways to estimate target position and velocity while accounting for noise and maneuvers. Examples of civilian and military target maneuvers are provided to illustrate the challenges of tracking.
This document provides an overview of radar antennas and scanning techniques. It begins with introductions to basic antenna concepts such as near and far field regions, electromagnetic field equations, polarization, and antenna gain. It then discusses reflector antennas, which use mechanical scanning to direct the antenna beam. The document outlines additional topics that will be covered, including phased array antennas, frequency scanning, and hybrid scanning methods. The goal is to provide an introduction to different types of radar antennas and how they are used to direct electromagnetic energy.
Radar 2009 a 12 clutter rejection basics and mtiForward2025
This document contains lecture slides about radar clutter rejection techniques. It discusses the history of moving target indication (MTI) and how digital technology has enabled more advanced processing. MTI uses Doppler filtering to suppress stationary clutter and detect moving targets. Early MTI employed crude subtraction of stored pulses. Modern digital implementations allow complex signal processing over many pulses for improved clutter cancellation.
This document provides an introduction and outline for a course on radar systems engineering given by Dr. Robert O'Donnell of the IEEE New Hampshire Section. The course covers the history of radar development including pre-radar detection methods, the early pioneers of radar technology, and key radar systems used in World War II such as the Chain Home radar network and SCR-584 fire control radar. It also summarizes how radar contributed to British victories during the Battle of Britain and in defending against German V-1 buzz bomb attacks. The document outlines topics to be covered on radar basics, principles of operation, and classifications of military, civilian and other radar systems.
Radar 2009 a 3 review of signals systems and dspForward2025
This document contains lecture notes from a course on radar systems engineering. It reviews key concepts from signals, systems, and digital signal processing that are important for understanding radar systems. These include continuous and discrete-time signals, sampling theory, the discrete Fourier transform, finite impulse response filters, and analog-to-digital conversion. The notes provide an overview of these topics and their application in radar signal processing, with the goal of giving non-electrical engineering students a basic understanding to enhance their learning in the radar systems course.
Radar 2009 a 17 transmitters and receiversForward2025
This document provides an overview of radar transmitter and receiver systems. It begins with an introduction and block diagram of radar transmitters and receivers. The bulk of the document then focuses on different types of high power tube amplifiers used in radar transmitters, including klystrons, traveling wave tubes, crossed field amplifiers, and magnetrons. It also briefly discusses solid state RF power amplifiers. The document concludes with an outline of topics to be covered, including receivers and waveform generators, other transmitter and receiver subsystems, and radar receiver-transmitter architectures.
Radar 2009 a 13 clutter rejection doppler filteringForward2025
This document discusses Doppler filtering techniques for radar clutter rejection. It begins with an introduction to the problem of rejecting ground, sea, rain, and bird clutter for radar systems. It then covers pulse Doppler processing techniques including the use of burst waveforms and Doppler filter banks. It concludes with a discussion of implementations of Doppler filters and issues with airborne pulse Doppler radars.
Radar 2009 a 15 parameter estimation and tracking part 1Forward2025
The document discusses a lecture on parameter estimation and tracking in radar systems. It covers topics like observable estimation including range, angle, Doppler, and amplitude measurement accuracy. It also discusses single target tracking techniques such as amplitude monopulse, phase comparison monopulse, sequential lobing, and conical scanning. The outline indicates it will cover multiple target tracking and provide a summary. Diagrams are included to illustrate concepts like angular tracking error sources and Doppler estimation.
The document is a lecture on radar antennas and discusses various antenna scanning techniques. It begins with an overview of radar systems and the radar equation. It then covers antenna fundamentals and different types of mechanical, electronic and hybrid scanning antennas used in radar systems. The lecture outlines electronic scanning with phased arrays, including linear and planar array beamforming. It discusses controlling the array pattern through element excitation phases and amplitudes. Properties of linear arrays like beamwidth and sidelobes are also covered. The document provides examples of increasing array gain by adding more elements.
This document provides an overview of transmission line modeling and analysis. It begins with assigning homework problems and then reviews electric field concepts such as Gauss's law and voltage difference calculations. Models for transmission line capacitance and inductance are developed considering both single and multi-conductor cases. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate per phase capacitance, resistance, and inductance values for different conductor types using data from standard tables. Additional transmission line topics like multi-circuit lines, underground cables, and corona discharge are also briefly discussed.
Radar 2009 a 11 waveforms and pulse compressionForward2025
The document describes a lecture on radar waveforms and pulse compression. It introduces matched filters and how they are implemented by convolving a reflected echo with a time-reversed transmit pulse. This maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio. Pulse compression techniques like linear frequency modulation and phase coding are then discussed, which allow the use of longer pulses that increase energy while maintaining high range resolution. The goal is to reduce the high peak power needs of short pulses for applications like airborne radar.
The document discusses adaptive moving target indication (MTI) radar. It describes how MTI radar uses the Doppler effect to discriminate moving targets from stationary clutter. Adaptive filters can be used for MTI to adjust to spatially and temporally varying clutter environments. The objective of the project is to design an adaptive MTI filter with improved performance in non-stationary clutter environments. This will involve estimating pulse-to-pulse amplitude variations of the clutter process and implementing this estimator in the adaptive MTI filter to help it adapt to non-stationary clutter behavior. Results applying this adaptive MTI filter to real radar data show extensive reduction in clutter detections in the radar image.
The document describes the design of an ultrasonic radar system for short range object detection. It discusses using ultrasonic frequencies instead of microwaves to make a more cost effective radar. The system uses an Arduino board, ultrasonic sensor, servo motor, LEDs and buzzer. It works by sending and receiving ultrasonic pulses and measuring the time delay to determine distance. The servo motor rotates to scan in different angles. Code and algorithms are provided to control the hardware and calculate distance measurements at various angles for object detection.
Radar 2009 a 2 review of electromagnetism3Forward2025
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association for electronic engineering and electrical engineering. Founded in 1963, IEEE has over 420,000 members in over 160 countries and publishes over 200 transactions, journals and magazines. IEEE sets standards for electric power, telecommunications, computer engineering, medical technology, biotechnology, and aerospace among other fields.
This document provides an introduction and overview of a presentation on modern warfare techniques. It discusses biological warfare, nuclear warfare, developments in military robots, electronic warfare, and cyber-terrorism. The presentation was delivered by a group of 8 students for their class on modern future weapons. The introduction defines weapons as both a source of agitation due to their destructive nature but also excitement due to their power. It traces the evolution of increasingly sophisticated weapons throughout history, from early mechanical weapons to today's focus on cyber warfare and biological weapons.
Radar 2009 a 6 detection of signals in noiseForward2025
This document summarizes a lecture on radar signal detection. It discusses detecting signals in noise, the radar detection problem, basic target detection tests, and how detection performance is affected by factors like signal-to-noise ratio and number of integrated pulses. It outlines concepts like probability of detection, probability of false alarm, and the tradeoff between the two. Integration of multiple pulses can improve performance through coherent or non-coherent integration. Fluctuating targets are also addressed.
This document summarizes a lecture on radar clutter. It discusses different types of clutter sources including ground, sea, rain, and birds. It provides details on the attributes of rain clutter such as how it is affected by wavelength and circular polarization. Graphs are presented showing reflectivity of rain and its Doppler spectrum. Bird clutter properties around radar cross-section, velocity, and density are also covered. The document aims to explain the impact of various clutter sources on radar performance.
This document provides an overview of a course on radar systems engineering to be presented by Dr. Robert O'Donnell. The course was initially developed in 2000 for engineers and scientists with little radar experience. It covers core topics in radar fundamentals and subsystems over multiple lectures. The course has evolved significantly and now includes additional material on radar applications. It is intended to provide students a broad understanding of radar principles and issues. Copyrighted material from MIT Lincoln Laboratory and industry will be used with permission.
This document contains lecture slides about radar signal propagation through the atmosphere. It discusses various propagation effects including reflection from the Earth's surface, atmospheric refraction, multipath interference, and attenuation. It provides equations for calculating propagation losses and phase differences between direct and reflected signals. Examples are given of how propagation affects radar coverage and detection range for a shipborne surveillance radar system.
This document contains 20 slides from a lecture on radar systems and the radar equation. The slides cover topics such as the basic components of a radar system, definitions of terms like radar cross section, development of the radar range equation, sources of noise, and examples of how radar performance scales with different design parameters. Key aspects of the radar equation like transmitter power, antenna size, range, losses, and noise temperature are discussed across the slides.
This document discusses various methods for calculating radar cross section (RCS), including the finite difference time domain method, method of moments, geometrical optics, physical optics, geometrical theory of diffraction, and physical theory of diffraction. It provides overviews and comparisons of each method, explaining their approaches and areas of applicability. The document also includes examples of RCS calculations and summaries of key points about specific methods.
This document provides an overview of radar cross section (RCS) and techniques for predicting a target's RCS through both measurement and theoretical calculation. It begins with definitions of RCS and factors affecting it. Examples of typical RCS values for different targets are given. Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to a target's RCS are described. Both full-scale and scale model target measurement techniques are outlined. Theoretical prediction methods including geometrical optics, physical optics, and diffraction theories are introduced. Scaling laws for applying results from scale models to full-scale targets are also covered.
Radar 2009 a 16 parameter estimation and tracking part2Forward2025
This document summarizes a lecture on parameter estimation and tracking. It discusses tracking processes like track association, initiation, maintenance through prediction and updating, and termination. Filtering techniques like the Kalman filter are presented as ways to estimate target position and velocity while accounting for noise and maneuvers. Examples of civilian and military target maneuvers are provided to illustrate the challenges of tracking.
This document provides an overview of radar antennas and scanning techniques. It begins with introductions to basic antenna concepts such as near and far field regions, electromagnetic field equations, polarization, and antenna gain. It then discusses reflector antennas, which use mechanical scanning to direct the antenna beam. The document outlines additional topics that will be covered, including phased array antennas, frequency scanning, and hybrid scanning methods. The goal is to provide an introduction to different types of radar antennas and how they are used to direct electromagnetic energy.
Radar 2009 a 12 clutter rejection basics and mtiForward2025
This document contains lecture slides about radar clutter rejection techniques. It discusses the history of moving target indication (MTI) and how digital technology has enabled more advanced processing. MTI uses Doppler filtering to suppress stationary clutter and detect moving targets. Early MTI employed crude subtraction of stored pulses. Modern digital implementations allow complex signal processing over many pulses for improved clutter cancellation.
This document provides an introduction and outline for a course on radar systems engineering given by Dr. Robert O'Donnell of the IEEE New Hampshire Section. The course covers the history of radar development including pre-radar detection methods, the early pioneers of radar technology, and key radar systems used in World War II such as the Chain Home radar network and SCR-584 fire control radar. It also summarizes how radar contributed to British victories during the Battle of Britain and in defending against German V-1 buzz bomb attacks. The document outlines topics to be covered on radar basics, principles of operation, and classifications of military, civilian and other radar systems.
Radar 2009 a 3 review of signals systems and dspForward2025
This document contains lecture notes from a course on radar systems engineering. It reviews key concepts from signals, systems, and digital signal processing that are important for understanding radar systems. These include continuous and discrete-time signals, sampling theory, the discrete Fourier transform, finite impulse response filters, and analog-to-digital conversion. The notes provide an overview of these topics and their application in radar signal processing, with the goal of giving non-electrical engineering students a basic understanding to enhance their learning in the radar systems course.
Radar 2009 a 17 transmitters and receiversForward2025
This document provides an overview of radar transmitter and receiver systems. It begins with an introduction and block diagram of radar transmitters and receivers. The bulk of the document then focuses on different types of high power tube amplifiers used in radar transmitters, including klystrons, traveling wave tubes, crossed field amplifiers, and magnetrons. It also briefly discusses solid state RF power amplifiers. The document concludes with an outline of topics to be covered, including receivers and waveform generators, other transmitter and receiver subsystems, and radar receiver-transmitter architectures.
Radar 2009 a 13 clutter rejection doppler filteringForward2025
This document discusses Doppler filtering techniques for radar clutter rejection. It begins with an introduction to the problem of rejecting ground, sea, rain, and bird clutter for radar systems. It then covers pulse Doppler processing techniques including the use of burst waveforms and Doppler filter banks. It concludes with a discussion of implementations of Doppler filters and issues with airborne pulse Doppler radars.
Radar 2009 a 15 parameter estimation and tracking part 1Forward2025
The document discusses a lecture on parameter estimation and tracking in radar systems. It covers topics like observable estimation including range, angle, Doppler, and amplitude measurement accuracy. It also discusses single target tracking techniques such as amplitude monopulse, phase comparison monopulse, sequential lobing, and conical scanning. The outline indicates it will cover multiple target tracking and provide a summary. Diagrams are included to illustrate concepts like angular tracking error sources and Doppler estimation.
The document is a lecture on radar antennas and discusses various antenna scanning techniques. It begins with an overview of radar systems and the radar equation. It then covers antenna fundamentals and different types of mechanical, electronic and hybrid scanning antennas used in radar systems. The lecture outlines electronic scanning with phased arrays, including linear and planar array beamforming. It discusses controlling the array pattern through element excitation phases and amplitudes. Properties of linear arrays like beamwidth and sidelobes are also covered. The document provides examples of increasing array gain by adding more elements.
This document provides an overview of transmission line modeling and analysis. It begins with assigning homework problems and then reviews electric field concepts such as Gauss's law and voltage difference calculations. Models for transmission line capacitance and inductance are developed considering both single and multi-conductor cases. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to calculate per phase capacitance, resistance, and inductance values for different conductor types using data from standard tables. Additional transmission line topics like multi-circuit lines, underground cables, and corona discharge are also briefly discussed.
Radar 2009 a 11 waveforms and pulse compressionForward2025
The document describes a lecture on radar waveforms and pulse compression. It introduces matched filters and how they are implemented by convolving a reflected echo with a time-reversed transmit pulse. This maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio. Pulse compression techniques like linear frequency modulation and phase coding are then discussed, which allow the use of longer pulses that increase energy while maintaining high range resolution. The goal is to reduce the high peak power needs of short pulses for applications like airborne radar.
The document discusses adaptive moving target indication (MTI) radar. It describes how MTI radar uses the Doppler effect to discriminate moving targets from stationary clutter. Adaptive filters can be used for MTI to adjust to spatially and temporally varying clutter environments. The objective of the project is to design an adaptive MTI filter with improved performance in non-stationary clutter environments. This will involve estimating pulse-to-pulse amplitude variations of the clutter process and implementing this estimator in the adaptive MTI filter to help it adapt to non-stationary clutter behavior. Results applying this adaptive MTI filter to real radar data show extensive reduction in clutter detections in the radar image.
The document describes the design of an ultrasonic radar system for short range object detection. It discusses using ultrasonic frequencies instead of microwaves to make a more cost effective radar. The system uses an Arduino board, ultrasonic sensor, servo motor, LEDs and buzzer. It works by sending and receiving ultrasonic pulses and measuring the time delay to determine distance. The servo motor rotates to scan in different angles. Code and algorithms are provided to control the hardware and calculate distance measurements at various angles for object detection.
In the modern age, High-resolution radar images can be achieved by employing SAR technique. It is well
known that SAR can provide several times better image resolution than conventional radars. The exploration for efficient
image denoising methods still remains a valid challenge for researchers. Despite the difficulty of the recently proposed
methods, mostly of the algorithms have not yet attained a pleasing level of applicability; each algorithm has its
assumptions, advantages, and limitations. This paper presents a review of synthetic aperture radar. Behind a brief
introduction in our work we are especially targeting the noise called backscattered noise in SAR terminology which
causes the appearance of speckle Potential future work in the area of air flight navigation, mapping Weather Monitoring
& during natural disaster like earth quake. The SAR having the capability, to make human visibility beyond optical
vision, is also discussed.
This document discusses industrial range measurement applications using acoustic level measurement technology. It provides an overview of the technology, noting that it works by measuring the time between sending a sound pulse and receiving an echo. It then discusses various challenges with the technology, such as how changes in the speed of sound can affect accuracy, and how factors like dust, pressure changes, obstructions, air currents, and target properties can impact performance. It provides details on how acoustic level measurement systems function and select operating frequencies.
Ground Penetrating Radar, also known as GPR, is a tool that is used to find Underground Utilities, Underground Storage Tanks (USTs), and in some cases, Graves. The depth and accuracy are dependent on a number of variables, such as soil density, moisture content, and antenna frequency. We use a 350 MHz antenna, which has the potential to reach depths of up to 35 ft (in perfect situations).
Robust automotive radar interference mitigation using multiplicative-adaptive...IJECEIAES
Radar is one of the sensors that have significant attention to be implemented in an autonomous vehicle since its robustness under many possible environmental conditions such as fog, rain, and poor light. However, the implementation risks interference because of transmitting and/or receiving radar signals from/to other vehicles. This interference will increase the floor noise that can mask the target signal. This paper proposes multiplicative-adaptive filtering and Hilbert transform to mitigate the interference effect and maintain the target signal detectability. The method exploited the trade-off between the step-size and sidelobe effect on the least mean square-based adaptive filtering to improve the target detection accuracy, especially in the long-range case. The numerical analysis on the millimeter-wave frequency modulated continuous wave radar with multiple interferers concluded that the proposed method could maintain and enhance the target signal even if the target range is relatively far from the victim radar.
Application Of Digital Signal Processing In Radar SignalsRichard Hogue
This document discusses the application of digital signal processing techniques in radar systems. It provides an overview of how digital signal processing is used extensively in modern radar, such as at the transmitter to generate pulses and at the receiver for tasks like clutter removal and beamforming. The main tasks of a radar signal processor are discussed, including decisions about targets, maintaining constant false alarm rates, tracking targets, resolving ambiguities, and countering interference. Detection of signals is also covered, along with fast convolution filter implementations using dual and single FFT pipelines for matched filtering.
Microwave Radiometer Analysis for Imaging and Vehicular SystemsIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a research paper about using microwave radiometry for fire detection around moving vehicles. The paper proposes using a ground-based microwave radiometer mounted near a road or rail track to image potential fire areas on a passing vehicle. Simulations were conducted using 30 GHz microwave radiation to analyze transmission through typical vehicle walls of different materials, thicknesses, and properties. The research suggests microwave radiometry may provide early fire detection by measuring changes in emitted radiation transmitted through dielectric vehicle walls, as an alternative or supplement to existing infrared sensor systems.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
This document provides an overview of radar technology. It discusses key radar concepts like reflection, polarization, distance and speed measurement, positioning, and the radar equation. It also describes different radar frequency bands and specific radar systems like AESA, Doppler weather radar, cloud radar, NEXRAD, passive radar, pulse-Doppler radar, and synthetic aperture radar. Radar uses radio waves to detect and locate objects at a distance by transmitting pulses and analyzing the echo signal.
This document provides an introduction to pulse repetition interval (PRI) analysis and deinterleaving from an electronic intelligence (ELINT) perspective. It discusses key concepts such as PRI, unambiguous range and velocity, range-velocity ambiguity, optimum PRI for medium PRF radars, and PRI stagger. The document explains how understanding radar constraints such as range resolution, integration time limits, Doppler resolution, and frequency agility can help an ELINT analyst correctly interpret radar signals and anticipate signal characteristics.
1. The document discusses the operational use of radar and ARPA, including fundamental radar principles, safe distances, radiation hazards, radar components, factors affecting performance, and interpretation of radar pictures.
2. It describes how radar works by transmitting electromagnetic pulses that bounce off objects and return, allowing the distance to be calculated. On ships, radar is used for collision avoidance and navigation assistance.
3. Key factors that influence radar detection range and resolution are discussed, such as wavelength, antenna height, target size, weather conditions, and more. Interpreting radar images requires experience due to effects like radar shadows and multiple echoes.
ENERGY EFFICIENT ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR VOID AVOIDANCE IN UWSN USING RESIDUAL ...IJCNCJournal
Abstract. Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSN) is attracting the interest of most of the researcher because of the good opportunity to discover and catch the oceanic activities. As we know radio waves could not work efficiently in Underwater so Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASN) emerged as a most prevalent network to an outstanding range. UASN have some constraints in its deployment as well as acoustic wave communication. This limitation involves large propagation delay, transmission cost, very less bandwidth, high signal attenuation, and restricted accessibility of the nodes and non-availability of the recharging of nodes leads to the development of some energy saving algorithms to prolong the lifetime of the nodes. Routing technique must be rich enough to overcome all these constraints and give an energyefficient path by avoiding void regions and increase the network lifetime. Depth based algorithms proposed in the last decades use depth factor to estimate the path from sender to the sink. By having the holding time calculation they minimize the replication of information. Here, this per have proposed Energy Efficient Void Avoidance Routing Scheme for UWSN (E2RV) using Residual Energy and Depth Variance it used two hop node information to escape the void shacks in the network area along with this it is using regularized remaining energy and normalized depth of the nodes to estimate the path from data generating node to sink
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Selecting Radar Level Instruments for Custody Transfersaeed shafiei
In many applications, higher-accuracy
measurements are required to protect
the customer from over-billing and the
supplier from under-billing. Common
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alcohols. In the oil & gas industry, this
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Real time implemantion of stc and ftc radar system
1. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 89
REAL TIME IMPLEMANTION OF STC AND FTC RADAR SYSTEM
BASED ON FPGA
Vipul patel1
, Prabat pandey2
and Sanjay patel3
1, 2
Department of ECE, Acropolis institute of technology & research, Indore, M.P,India, Vipulpatel.1988@gmail.com
3
Department of ECE, JIET College, Jodhpur, R. J,India,patelsanju29@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
In this paper we are explosively the fundamental theory of radar system modules STC (sensitivity time control) or sea clutter and FTC
(fast time constant) or rain clutter. The STC and FTC are commonly used to some clutter. The radar signal is widely used for weather
forecast, air port traffic control, military and fire control. The system implements radar processing procedures in real time mode in
FPGA (field programmable gate array). The FPGA device providing good performance of cheap platform for research and
development. The compact structure of STC and FTC can Implementations of Xilinx FPGA using the generated VHDL code.
Index Terms: FPGA, FTC, STC, LUT.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------***-----------------------------------------------------------------------
1. INTRODUCTION
Real time is correctness of system depend not only logical
result of computation but also on which result are produced.
Real time is over all correctness of the system depending upon
both function correctness and timing correctness. Real time
system command and process control system and multimedia
and high speed communication system. Real time system is
creating additional requirement. The radar is required to have
a very good detection capability. Detection and track of small
targets in harsh weather condition can help authorities in
efficient monitoring of illegal activities. The radar device
which is used to detection and ranging of contacts independent
of time and weather condition, was one of the most important
scientific discovery and technology. The radar signal
processing is an excellent tool for weather prediction, civil
aviation and many other applications including its military
uses. The sensitivity time control and fast time constant are
basic modules for radar signal processing that pretend to filter
the echo’s signal to decrease the effect of the mentioned
clutters. The target recovering from the echo signal is not a
trivial task since rain, snow, hail, or dust clutter affect radar’s
reading, resulting in poor or false target detection of the signal
during time and space. In this paper we propose real time field
programmable gate array implementations of STC and FTC
radar modules.
2. MODULES
2.1 STC (Sensitivity Time Control)
Land -based radar have permanents echoes. Marine radar has
sea clutter. Permanent echoes are the reflections form nearby
objects: an air craft hanger, a building, a microwave tower,
summit, etc. Except on the sophisticated commercial and
military radar, there is nothing one can do with them except
become familiar with these patterns. A high mounted antenna
will shown “sea return” noise over a greater range, but the
strength of this is quite weak. A low mounted antenna shows
the interface over a smaller range; close in, but with strong
echoes. The sea clutter control uses a special circuit to alter
the receiver gain close to the ship, in such manner that the
intensity of the clutter is reduced. This is makes it possible to
work through the sea clutter ;however as the overall effect is
to reduce the sensitivity of radar receiver close to the vessel
,weak returns from legitimate objects are likely to be
weakened or completely suppressed. This control should be
set to the least (brightest) total that can be tolerated. Always
remember to zero the sea clutter control when the need for it
has passed. Picking out small targets in sea clutter is what we
want most from our radar. Large vessel sit well above the
waves and have a good radar return in about all conditions.
But smaller vessels are often lost in the radar clutter reflected
back from waves. And, there is a tradeoff here between using
tuning controls to reduce sea clutter and losing those small
boat targets we really want to see. There are various controls
on the 2117 which allow us to refine the image surrounding us
in rough water. These include Rain and Sea Clutter, target
averaging, and pulse length. In radar receivers, the wide
distinction in return signal amplitudes make adjustment of the
gain difficult. The adjustment of receiver gain for best
visibility of nearby target return signals is not the best
adjustment for distant target return signals. Circuits used to
adjust amplifier gain with time, during a single pulse
repetition period are called STC circuits, or “swept gain
attenuator”.
Local clutter levels dictate the magnitude of swept gain and
conflicting requirements for swept gain are presented as the
2. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 90
antenna rotates. Modern systems dynamically measure clutter
levels for a large numeral of cells within the coverage area of
the radar. These measurements are slowly adjusted to take
account of changing clutter levels and used to put the swept
gain attenuator to an appropriate level for the range azimuth
cell currently being processed. In most cases, the values used
are a variation on the normal static law. This is due to abrupt
changes in swept gain law destroying the integrity of the
clutter amplitudes. in addition if long or compressed pulses are
used, amplitude changes can affect the performance.
The STC is really a radar system term. Most modern radar
system have a need to attenuate ,in a controlled Way, the
amplitude of large target returns that may occur close to the
trailing edge of the transmitted pulse. The moments of
reading echo, it has high power due to the nearby and the last
reading usually have a significant power decreasing. The
responsible for correcting this sensitivity time control (STC)
since it is commonly used to decrease the amplitude of nearby
target that could be false target caused by sea clutter. In calm
seas this control is set to its minimum value. STC’s main task
to detect close target that might be obscured by sea clutter,
but if it is set to its high value trying to remove sea-clutter,
STC could remove small close targets too. The figure 1 shows
the kind of function used by the STC to correct sea clutter.
Figure 1. Echo and STC voltage Vs time (or distance).
This is accomplished through the use of a variable attenuator
which is located someplace in receive channel behind the
receiver protector. In a typical application, the attenuator is set
to maximum attenuation during the period of the transmitter
pulse. At the end of the pulse, the amount of attenuation is
reduced, in a controlled way according to organization
requirements, until it reaches 0 dB. In way, large close-in
target returns are controlled and the effective dynamic range
receiver is increased. The STC is really a programmed
attenuation function.
2.2 FTC (Fast Time Constant)
The shorter wavelength radar is more susceptible to rain or
snow meddling than are its longer wavelength cousins. A
squall within your radar range can blanket the area of heavy
rain with strong returns, twinkling somewhat like grass, but
tending to obscure all other usable data in the vicinity. The
rain clutter control will reduce the effect somewhat, allowing
some ability to see targets within the area, However, like other
clutter reducing circuit, this control also lower the overall
sensitivity of the radar. Rain may be heavy on one azimuth arc
only, and non-existent around the rest of the swept area. If the
squall is not in an area of primary concern, level the clutter
control at its minimum setting. Again, all anti-clutter control
reduces the generally sensitivity of radar. Be in the habit of
turning them off first, then adding back only the least sum
needed to achieve a comfortable display viewing level. In
addition to the rain control, some radar has a separate FTC
control. This adjusts a circuits optimized for the diminution of
precipitation interface at longer ranges. Rain , insects, and
some weather condition like dust could be considered as noise
for the radar signal , for these situations the Fast Time
Constant(FTC) module is used to take away undesired
reading , basically based on a derivative filter and now and
then associated with CFAR (constant false alarm rate) used to
set a constant probability of false echo. FTC sometimes called
Rain clutter Control, Which is a variable FTC, is a
differentiator that detects abrupt changes or fluctuations in
echo’s signal in order to discriminate constant or almost –
constant echo’s signal, frequently caused by rain, dust, snow
or other unwanted echoes. It is also known as differential or
anti-rain clutter control. FTC is in fact a high pass strain
whose cost is reduction of maximum exposure range, to avoid
this problem log –FTC could be used for large distances.
When it is used to reduce the rain clutter is also called
weather-fix. The rain clutter is a volumetric phenomenon so
the amount of litter returned back to the radar will be directly
proportional to the volume of the rain illuminated by the radar
beam. Shown in figure2.
Figure 2 The shaped radar beam reduces rain clutter return
and increases radar ranges.
3. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 91
3. ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of STC & FTC are require to the many
elements like’s control unit, mixer ,stream data and clock bus
,clock signal, output data bus look up table and ALU
(arithmetic logic unit) etc. Each module the each module
works independently from other two, then we propose a
similar structural design based on stream data processing with
one linear mixer that joins the two output. Show figure 3 is
architecture proposed.
Figure 3. Architecture proposed.
The control unit work is initiate sequences of micro operation.
Perform successively changing from one step to another step.
The control unit receiver the control values for each two
modules. The system arrangement the operation according to
the range used and specifies input to each modules a fix
occupation is used to process the STC those values are
stored in the look up table. The LUT (look up table) is control
the unit value is stored in look up table, but address addition to
read this LUT could not be lineal due to different resolution
and ranges used to radar’s system. A stream data bus is data
transfer between the personality control units. A clock signal
regulates to flow of logic signal so that system can run
optimum speed. A clock is devices that generate periodic
signal for timing. Mixers are three port active or passive
device are designed to yield both sum and difference
frequency at a signal output port when two distinct input
frequency are inserted into other two ports.
The STC module which elements are LUT (look up table),
ALU (arithmetic logic unit), a counter and a register to store
output data. LUT is used as STC’s curve storage, the counter
is calculated to configure its increment as function of
resolution and counter‘s function is provide the LUT’s
address. Shows figure 4.
Figure 4 sensitivity time control architecture.
FTC is basically a driver which is built with an adder and two
register, one to store the previous value and other to store
output. The register store temporary result related to the
computation. There are also special purpose register used to
by the control unit. Shown in figure 5.
Figure 5.fast time constant architecture.
4. HARDWARE IMPLIMENTATION
The main objective in this section is to demonstrate a
functioning hard ware for the purposed STC & FTC
architecture. The mat lab is high performance language for
technical computing mat lab is modern programming
language. The hardware realization, a simulation using mat lab
was performed using a synthetic echo is 12 bit integers and
2048 samples. The result of simulating was to validate the
results obtained by hardware once it is implemented and also
to use the same synthetic echo to test the implementation. The
output of the copying of a synthetic echo through the two
mixed modules, the signal with highest and lowest values is
the synthetic echo and the order is the filtered echo (darker
and marked one).shown in figure 6.
4. IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 2321-7308
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Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 92
Figure 6.Hardware implementation performed with Mat Lab
5. FPGA IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation was performed in a Xilinx Spartan II
FPGA. The FPGA is large array of configuration of logic
block connected via programmable inter connects. The
modern FPGA have very resourceful I/O blocks which make
them easy to interface to other chip. The system was
developed with VHDL Hardware Description Language
coding simulating tool. The VHDL provides a rich of
concurrent statement to module the concurrency in digital
hardware. The VHDL is strongly type talking in the first
stages of design and to generate some of the basic elements; at
figure 7 it is shown the block design at on the go HDL.
Figure 7 Block design in Active-HDL.
The main advantage of proposed structure (the software and
FPGA hard ware) is the facility whereupon we can easily
change the parameters of each block of the system. it is
required in some application to increase the precision of the
system, let us elasticity to adjust the parameter of the system
,and therefore better solutions. VHDL model was synthesize
with Xilinx ISE and targeted for a XC2S50TQ144-5(Spartan
II). ISE core generator was used for the STC LUT creation.
Finally Mat Lab was used for simulation, generating STC
values and its S-Record and plotting the results stored at the
board SDRAM. In order to confirm the hard ware
accomplishment a test bench was implemented. It is basically
a SDRAM driver to read the synthetic echo, stored via S-
record, and also used storing output stream. The drinkable
signal, resulted of the hardware implementation is like the one
replicated with Mat Lab. Some minor difference result from
the limited memory for the LUT that stores STC values
allocated at the BRAMs of the FPGA. The system realization
throughput is one sample per clock cycle. According with
minimum period of 9.787 ns, the maximum frequency is
102.176 MHz.
6. RESULTS
The implementation of STC & FTC on radar system based on
FPGA in real time mode. The trial result measured in the
implemented radar processing model presented the copied
echo signal & filtered signal by the proposed architecture is
shown in figure 7.
Figure 8 Result obtained.
7. DISCUSSION
The proposed parallel architecture implements STC and FTC
modules with some and specialized dedicated hard ware. This
implementation perform the arithmetic operations needed to
process STC and FTC concurrently, has latency of one cycle
and produces an output result on each clock cycle. The
planned architecture process data on stream basis and the
number of samples does not modify the latency. since its
maximum frequency is around 100 MHz and sample is
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Volume: 02 Issue: 09 | Sep-2013, Available @ http://www.ijret.org 93
processed by cycle, processing 100MSPS (Millions of samples
per second) could be reached, and it is as good as profitable
radar that process between 50 and 100 MSPS. marketable
radar process 4096*4096 sample in 2.5 second which means
6710886.4 samples per second .
CONCLUSIONS
This work presents an efficient implementation of STC and
FTC in real time. The designed architecture for those
controls is based on similar dealing out under dedicated and
specialized hardware that was reached due to bendable and
chip platform provided by FPGA. Therefore this
programmable hardware with its significant improvement in
the processing speed will make it possible to augment the
decision of the radar range cell and open new avenues for
further useful real time application. The presented building is
able to process 100 MSPS (millions of sample per
second).Which is a good metric according with commercial
radars.
REFERENCES
[1] Merrill Ivan skolnik, Introduction to radar systems,
Editorial McGraw-Hill,2000
[2] Ray Andraka, “FPGA as make a radar signal processor on
a chip a reality ”’ IEEE proceeding of the Asilomar
conference on signals, system and computers, October 1999.
[3] Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board manual, 2001.
[4] Stefan sjoholm, and Lennart Lindh, VHDL for Designer,
Prentice Hall , First Edition , 1997
[5 ]Andre DeHon, “The Density Advantage of
Reconfigurable computing”, IEEE Computer, Vol .33, No.4,
April 2000, PP.41-49.