This document provides an overview of qualitative and quantitative research methods. It discusses the differences between quantitative and qualitative methodologies, including their deductive vs. inductive processes and predetermined vs. emerging design approaches. It also contrasts quantitative and qualitative data collection methods and types of analysis. The document then covers key aspects of research including definitions, characteristics, ethics, and different research designs such as experimental, descriptive, and historical. It provides examples of specific descriptive research methods like case studies, surveys, and developmental studies.

1. QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

2. QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
METHODOLOGICAL ASSUMPTION
(CRESSWELL)
Quantitative Qualitative
Deductive process Inductive process
Cause and effect
Mutual simultaneous shaping of
factors
Static design – categories isolated
before study
Emerging design – categories
identified during research process
Generalization leading to
prediction, explanation, and
understanding
Patterns, theories developed for
understanding
Accurate and reliable through
validity and reliability
Accurate and reliable through
verification

3. QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE
METHODS
• Description & explanation
oriented
• Literature Review plays a
major role
• Purpose specific, and
measurable
• Data Collection Predetermined
instruments, numeric data
• Statistical analysis
• Reporting, standard and fixed
• Exploratory & understanding
oriented
• Literature review plays a minor
role
• Purpose is general and broad,
• Data Collection Emerging
protocols, text or image data
• Text analysis
• Reporting, flexible and
emerging.

4. RESEARCH
• Systematic inquiry that is characterized by a certain amount of
rigor and governed by sets of principles and guidelines for
procedure (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1989).
• Systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of
generalizations, principles or theories (Best and Kahn, 1998).

5. RESEARCH
• Systematic, controlled and empirical inquiry about a subject/topic
through problem solving process using the rigorous application of
the scientific method (Hanson and Soriano, 1999).
• A purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,
analysing, classifying, organizing, presenting and interpreting
data for the solution of the problem, for prediction, for
intervention, for the discovery of truth, of for the expansion or
verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life (Calderon and
Gonzales, 1993).

6. RESEARCH
• Common elements from the definitions:
1. There are meaningful questions to be answered.
2. An orderly manner is employed to answer such questions.
3. Knowledge generated in the process.
Prado, et.al., 2001

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Systematic
2. Logical
3. Controlled
4. Empirical
5. Critical
6. Analytical
7. Reductive
8. Cyclical
9. Replicable and Transmittable
Prado, et.al., 2001

8. ETHICS IN RESEARCH (ETHICAL
PRINCIPLES)
1. Voluntary Participation
2. Informed Consent
3. No Risk of Harm
4. Privacy (Confidentiality, Anonymity)
5. Equality of Service
6. No Deception
7. Knowledge of Outcome
Prado, et.al., 2001

9. ETHICAL STANDARDS
• Informed Consent
• Honesty between researchers and participants and institutional
representatives
• Sensitivity to institutional policies
• Participants’ right to withdraw
• Researchers not exploiting research populations, subordinates or
students
• Sensitivity to cultural, religious, gender and other differences among
participants
American Educational Research Associations, 1992

10. ETHICAL STANDARDS
• Careful consideration and minimization of techniques that might have
negative social consequences
• Researchers’ need to be sensitive to the integrity of on-going local
institutional activities
• Communication of research findings clearly to appropriate research
populations and other stakeholders
• Participants’ right to anonymity
American Educational Research Associations, 1992

11. RESEARCH DESIGN
THE POSITIVISM SCIENTIFIC MODEL
Identification of a Topic
Review of Previous Literature in the Topic
Theories Formulated or Hypothesis to be tested
Research Design and Technique Chosen
Data Collection Data Analysis
Do results supports existing theory or hypothesis
Look for Alternative Explanations Report Findings
Repeat the process again PARTICULAR
GENERAL
NO YES

12. THERE ARE MANY METHODS OF
CONDUCTING RESEARCH.
Experimental
Correlational
Narrative
Ethnographic
Case Study
DescriptiveSurvey
Grounded Theory
Mixed Causal-Comparative
Single Subject
Qualitative Quantitative

13. THE THREE DIFFERENT METHODS
OF RESEARCH
• Historical Method
• Descriptive Method
• Experimental Method

14. HISTORICAL METHOD
• The historical method is one which deals with past events and
interprets them in the light of the present.
• It is concerned with giving an account of past events or facts in
the spirit of inquiring critically for the whole truth.
• Its purpose is to explain the present or anticipate the future
based on a systematic collection and critical evaluation of data
pertaining to past occurrences.

15. DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
• This design is for the investigator to gather information about
present condition.
• The main objective of this design is to describe the nature of the
situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the
causes of particular phenomena.
• It is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist;
practices that prevail; and beliefs and processes that are going
on; effects that are being felt or trends that are developing.

16. DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
• Types of Descriptive Research
1. Case Study
2. Survey Research
3. Developmental Studies
4. Evaluation Studies
5. Comparative Studies
6. Correlational Studies
7. Follow-up Studies
8. Trends and Projection
9. Ex Post Factor Research
10. Participatory Research

17. CASE STUDY
• A detailed study about one person or unit over a considerable period
of time.
• It provides an in-depth analysis for investigation such as an individual
patient, a family, a hospital ward, a health agency, a particular
disease, a professional organization, or a group.
Example: A Case of the Kawasaki Disease
A Case Study of Organizational Development of
a Public Schools in Caraga

18. SURVEY RESEARCH
• A survey is used to gather relatively limited data from relatively large
number of cases. The purpose is to gather information about
prevailing conditions or about the variable under study.
Example: Impressions on Mother Tongue-Based Instruction
of Pupils from Selected Private Schools in Caraga Region

19. DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
• Intends to get reliable information about a group of people over a
long period of time.
• There are two types of developmental studies:
1. Longitudinal Method. Studies the same sample of participants over
an extended period of time.
2. Cross-sectional Method. Concerns studying participants of various
age levels and of other characteristics at the same point of time.

20. ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION
STUDIES
• Assessment/Evaluation studies attempt to determine the
effectiveness of efficacy of a certain practices or policies when
applied to a group of respondents.
Example: The Effectiveness of the Quality Assurance
System in Teacher Education Program

21. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
• Correlational Studies attempt to establish relationships among 2 or
more variables.
Example: Familial and Social Factors in Relation to Value
Orientation of College Freshmen of Selected Private School
of Caraga Region

22. FOLLOW-UP STUDIES
• They are used in you want to follow-up the development of a certain
condition.
Example: Employability of the Graduates of Saint Joseph
Institute of Technology from 2010 – 2015.

23. TRENDS AND PROJECTION
STUDIES
• The attempt to describe the future with respect to emerging pattern in
the past and the present of an event or phenomenon.
Example: Change and the Future of Agusan River: An
Anthropological Viewpoint

24. EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH
• Ex-post facto means “from after the fact” and deals with researches
where the dependent variable is immediately observable and the
events before that have given rise to this consequence.
Example: Differing Consequences on Smokers of Varying
Amounts of Cigarrettes

25. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1. Post Test Only Experimental Design
2. Pre-test-Post-test Experimental Design
3. Solomon Four Group Design

26. POST TEST ONLY EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
• It is a simple design. It is called post test only because the date is
collected after the experimental treatment is complete.
Example: Hypothesis is that color of a school nurses uniform affects
the degree to which the children display positive and negative affective
behavior (smiling, crying). The causative or independent variable is the
uniform color and the effect variable or dependent variable is the
child’s behavior. The independent variable is manipulated by assigning
some school nurses white uniforms and some with colored or printed
uniforms. Thus, in the study we could compare the affective behaviors
of school children cared for by nurses in white uniforms and those
cared nurses in colored/printed uniform.

27. PRE-TEST-POST-TEST
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• It is more complex. It is called pre-test-post-test. There are two points
of measurements, one before the experimental treatment and one
after the experimental treatment.
Example: Suppose we wanted to examine the effect of remedial
instruction. The design would involve imposing a remedial sessions on
the experimental group and no remedial sessions on the control group
at certain points in time. Data will be recorded before and after the
remedial sessions. This allows us to examine if there are changes in the
academic performance of the pupils as a result of the remedial sessions.
Example: The Efficacy of Strategic Intervention Materials in
Teaching Social Studies Among Grade 10 Students of Saint Joseph
Institute of Technology

28. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN
• It is a version of pre-test-post-test design. It adds two addition groups.
The purpose of adding the two groups is to separate the effects of the
pre-test and to segregate it from the intervention. In other words, a pre-
test may be sensitizing treatment that may affect the results of an actual
treatment.
• Is an experimental group without the pre-test.
• Is the control group without the pre-test
Example: If the intervention is a workshop to improve teachers’
attitudes toward drop-outs, the pre-test may sensitize the teachers and
affect their attitudes at that point and obscure the analysis of the
workshop’s effect.

29. RESEARCH REPORT
WRITING

30. ASSUMPTIONS
• You have the passion for research in your heart, mind and soul
and now ready to transcend the energy to actual write-up

31. OUTLINE OF THE PRESENTATION
• Parts of the Research Paper ( Chapters 1 to 5)
• Parts of the Research Paper ( Chapters 1 to 4 for)
• Contents of each chapter
• Preliminaries and add-ons
• Sample presentations

32. • “Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying
with a purpose.” Zora Neale Hurston quotes (American
folklorist and Writer, 1903-1960)

33. • “To steal ideas from one person is plagiarism, to steal
ideas from many is research.”

34. CHAPTERS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
Chapter 1 The Problem and Its Scope
Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature
Chapter 3 Methodology
Chapter 4
Presentation, Analysis and
Interpretation of Data
Chapter 5
Summary of Findings,
Conclusions and
Recommendations

35. CHAPTERS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
Chapter 1 The Problem and Its Scope
Chapter 2 Methodology
Chapter 3 Results and Discussion
Chapter 4
Summary of Findings,
Conclusions and
Recommendations

36. PRELIMINARIES ( BEFORE CHAPTER 1)
• COVER PAGE
• APPROVAL SHEET
• ACKNOWLEDGMENT
• DEDICATION
• ABSTRACT
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• LIST OF TABLES
• LIST OF FIGURES

37. ADD-ONS (AFTER CHAPTER 5)
• Bibliography ( APA format)
• Appendices
• Appendix A and so on
• Curriculum Vitae
• Note: The current trend uses the term
• LITERATURE CITED instead of
Bibliography or References

38. CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS
SCOPE
• Introduction
• Review of Related Literature and Studies
• Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
• Statement of the Problem/ Objectives
• Hypotheses
• Significance of the Study
• Scope and Limitations
• Definition of Terms

39. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY
• Research Design
• Brief description of the research
method used
• Justification on why it is the best
method for the study
• Research Locale
• Brief description of the place where
the participants or respondents are to
be obtained

40. RESEARCH DESIGNS
• A scheme that maps out the data sources, the
type of data to be collected, how data will be
collected, and the methods to be used in data
analysis
• Pinpoints specifically the relationships of the
variables under study
• Set time constraints within which the research
problem should be answered

41. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY
• Samples and Sampling Technique Used
• Brief description of the population
• Sampling size, how it was determined
• Specific technique used in selecting the samples
• Instrumentation
• Description of the instruments used – their contents, how developed
and validated

42. CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY
• Procedure
• Scientific
• Details of data collection
• Include time frame involved in data collection
• Who will do the data collection?
• Statistical Analysis of the Data
• What statistics are to be used on the research data and why?
• Should be in consonance with the objectives/hypothesis of the study

43. CHAPTER 3 (RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
• Presented according to the problems of the study
• Plain reading and explanation of figures about the results of the
study
• Analysis and interpretation of results
• Interprets data in a unified or holistic manner.

44. CHAPTER 4 (SUMMARY OF
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Summary
• Synopsis of the research objectives,
hypothesis, research methodology and
findings
• Summary of Findings
• Summary of answers to the statement of
the problem (paragraph form)

45. CHAPTER 4 (SUMMARY OF FINDINGS,
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Conclusions
• Brief statements about the generalization inferred from the results
• Includes the theoretical and practical implications of the findings
discussed
• Recommendations
• Detailed description of the suggestions for future action based on the
significance of the findings
• Includes recommendations for future research

46. TIPS ON ABSTRACT
PREPARATION
• The abstract is a brief and comprehensive
summary of the contents of a study. It should be
accurate, concise, and specific. It should not
exceed 350 words.
• The key elements of an abstract are: background
information, research problem/aim, methodology,
results, and conclusions or implications.
• The background information is a brief sentence
or two that establishes the significance or context
of the research, and thus, should be directly
linked to the research problem.
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47. TIPS ON ABSTRACT PREPARATION
• The research problem must be clearly stated: it
can be the problem addressed by the research;
the aim of the research; or the specific research
question or hypothesis relating to the paper.
• The discussion on methodology depends on
whether the methodology used was standard or
modified.

48. • The key results are summarized in an informative
abstract. This section of an abstract often contains the
most important information.
• The conclusions summarize one or two of the key
implications of the research.
• The background information and conclusions are written
in the present tense. The research problem is written in
the past tense. The methodology and key results are
written in the past tense.
Tips on Abstract Preparation

49. FACTOR THAT INFLUENCE THE
SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM
• Availability of Data
• Time Constraint
• Funds
• Capability of the Researcher
• Attitudes and Interest of the Researcher
• Interest of the Sponsor or Benefactor
• Importance of the Issues Involved
• Recency of Such Issues
• Cooperation of Others
• Facilities and Equipment

50. THE TITLE OF THE INVESTIGATION
• It summarizes the content of the entire study.
• It is a frame or reference of the whole study.
• It enables the researcher (you) to claim the study as his/her
(your) own.
• It helps other researcher to refer to it (your work) as they survey
some theories themselves.

51. THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
• Statements in this part should not only signify the importance but
shall also cause an impact on the reader.
• A research report is an objective report which shall deal only with
the cold facts and not with a literary piece.
• In this portion, one can give a personal opinion but backed with
statement/s of persons or authority, documents or records.

52. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
• Directs the research to focus on the concepts and its observable
indicators and states which of the concepts will be indicate
dependent and intervening variables and the visible indicators of
these variables.
• Somehow has familiar functions with the theoretical framework
but uses more specific or well defined concepts (constructs).
• A formal way of thinking (conceptualizing) about the
process/system under study.

53. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
• A concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea
or “complex mental formulation of experience” (Chinn and Kramer,
1999).
• Concepts are the major components of theory and convey the
abstract ideas within a theory and further define the theory.
• Each concept creates a mental image, which is explained further
through the conceptual definition. When researchers use conceptual
frameworks to guide their studies, you can expect to find a system of
ideas, synthesized for the purpose of organizing thinking and
providing study direction.

54. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF
THE STUDY
• A theoretical framework outlines the Theory on which the
research work being proposed or carried out, is hinged. A theory
is a body of interrelated propositions that attempts to describe,
explain or predict a phenomenon. Oftentimes the theory is not
testable. It is built and verified to a series of interrelated
hypotheses that are themselves directly testable.

55. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF
THE STUDY
• Is the study going to verify, test or investigate the validity of an
existing theory?
• Or is the study going to build and therefore espouse a new
theory?
 Example 1: The study will attempt to verify Engel’s Law in the context of Butuanon
culture in the Philippines. (Engel’s Law in Economics states that the higher is the
income of the family, the lesser the percentage expenditure of the family on food as a
proportion of the total family income.) This will verify the spectrum of the of an
existing theory.

56. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF
THE STUDY
 Example 2: The study rests on the theory that supervisory effectiveness is influence by
the human resource management skills of leader. (This will attempt to establish a new
theory that will likewise be tested in actual operation. The same elements comprising
a theory may be used in a study but the functional relationships among the elements
may be “new”. This will generate yet another new theory that can be verified through
empirical means.)

57. THEORETICAL AND/ OR
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
• It is the basis of the research problem.
• It explains the phenomena upon which the investigation hopes to fill the
vacuum on the stream or knowledge.
• The reader may conclude at the end whether the theoretical framework
has been:
• fully supported
• partially supported or
• negated by empirical data.
• The theoretical framework is based on actual theory while the conceptual
framework is a creation of the author.
• Both are organized, logical and coherent frameworks upon which the
problems of the study are based.
• Can perceive what the study is all about.

58. RESEARCH PARADIGM
• A diagrammatic presentation of the conceptual framework which depicts in a
more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.
• The detailed presentation of the variables to be observed in the current study, the
concepts defined in a way the researcher wants.
• It is also understood in a current research, the operationalization of the variables-
concepts, the visible indicators, the scheme of measuring the variables.
• Provides the researcher the direction of the research as well as basis for data
analysis.
• Also known as operational framework since it shows the very specific variables
used in the study.
• It is the constructs in the theory or conceptual framework used in the study.

59. INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE/S
(presumed or
possible cause/s
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE/S
(presumed or
possible result/s
affect/s
Educational
Qualifications
Teaching
Performance
Age
Sex
Civil Status
Monthly Income
Years of Teaching
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE/S
INTERVENING
VARIABLE/S
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE/S

60. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• This is one of the most important parts of a research report.
• This is the focus of the study and all the questions stated should
be categorically answered.
• How can you make the problem specific?
 Define your interest.
 Read a lot of materials and references.
 Continue reading the literature.
 Identify the special aspects about your interest that you gathered.
 Identify the factors or variables that you would like to work on.

61. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• How do you state the problem?
 Every research starts with (a) problems/s.
 At the start, the problem may be very broad which needs to be
made specific or broken into smaller or limited ones.
 The statement of the problem may be stated in question, topical or
objective form.

62. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• Question form
The study tries to find out the leadership skills of the middle
managers. Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following
questions:
1. What are the leadership skills of the middle managers of the
Manpower Corporation in terms of:
1.1 human relation;
1.2 technical;
1.3 administrative; and
1.4 instructional skills?

63. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• Topical form
The study tries to find out the leadership skills of the middle
managers. Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following:
1. The leadership skills of the middle managers of the Manpower
Corporation in terms of:
1.1 human relation;
1.2 technical;
1.3 administrative; and
1.4 instructional skills.

64. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
• Objective form
The study tries to find out the leadership skills of the middle
managers. Specifically, the study seeks to:
1. Determine the leadership skills of the middle managers of the
Manpower Corporation in terms of:
1.1 human relation;
1.2 technical;
1.3 administrative; and
1.4 instructional skills?

65. THREE LEVELS OF INQUIRY
• Level One: Questions that asked about topics that the researcher
has limited knowledge.
• Example:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 age
1.2 sex and
1.3 educational attainment?

66. THREE LEVELS OF INQUIRY
• Level Two: Questions on relationship or effects of variables.
• Example:
1. Is there a relationship between long exposure to x-rays and
cancer among radiologists?
2. Is there a significant difference in the achievement of the
students between the pre-test and post-test scores.

67. THREE LEVELS OF INQUIRY
• Level Three: Research questions which assume the relationship
and effects and ask the “why” of the results.
• This type of question involves more variables, outcomes and
predictions.
• Example:
1. To what extent do mental ability and home environment factors
influence learning of students in Topology?
2. How effective is the prediction on grades in Social Studies when
in formation on hours of study habits and mental ability are
known?

68. MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Dickoff (1968) says that there are four major types of research
questions and these are:
1. Factor – isolating
2. Factor – relating
3. Situation – relating
4. Situation - producing

69. MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Factor Isolating. These questions that generally start with a
“WHAT”
• Example:
1. What are the problems faced by AIDS victims?
2. What are the major sources of stress meet by school
administrators of Saint Joseph Institute of Technology?

70. MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Factor Relating. These are questions that deal with the
relationships and effects. They seek information on the
relationship of variables or effects of variables on other variables.
• Example:
1. What is the relationship between the leadership skills and level of
job satisfaction of the personnel of XYZ company?

71. MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Situation Relating. These are questions that deal involve the
results of the manipulation of the variable on the other.
• Example:
1. How will early diagnosis of reading ability affect the academic
performance of pupils?
2. How will the NCAE results improve the quality of college entrants
in various universities.

72. MAJOR TYPES OF RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
• Situation Producing. These are questions that establish explicit
goals or actions. They require development of plans under which
the goals may be achieved.
• Example:
1. What should be done in schools to prevent massive destruction
during calamities?
2. What program may be designed to enhance the leadership skills
of school administrators?

73. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Demonstrates mastery of the literature in the field
• Presents pertinent research to acquaint the reader with existing
knowledge on the subject
• Discusses the study in relation to the current or more recent
literature
• Includes the discussion of the theoretical and conceptual
framework
• Provides the researcher with enough information to achieve the
goals of research

74. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Quality RRL
 Distinguish what has been done and what needs to be undertaken
 Identify relevant variables
 Identify relationships
 Distinguish excellent research
 Identify the main research methodologies and designs that have been
utilized
 Identify contradictions and inconsistencies
 Identify strengths and weaknesses of the various research approaches
that have been utilized
Onwuegbuzie, et.al., 2010

75. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Tracking
 Is the literature retrievable?
 Does the literature supporting the study contain timely information?
• Critical Appraisal
 Was evaluation of the different studies done?
 Are the gaps, limitations and future areas of investigation mentioned in
the review of related literature.

76. PLAGIARISM
“deliberate or reckless use of someone else’s thoughts, words or
ideas as one’s own, without clear attribution of the source”
Mason, Peter R. Plagiarism in Scientific Publications Biomedical
Research & Training Institute, Harare, Zimbabwe Infect
Developing Countries 2009;3(1):1 – 4.
• Strategies
Look for clues
Know the sources of the papers
Search the paper on-line
Use a plagiarism detection software

77. PLAGIARISM
• Look for Clues
 Formatting
 Citation
 Style
 Content
• Formatting Clues
 Unusual Formatting
 doesn’t conform
 strange gaps or breaks between paragraph or pages
 margin of the document change or the alignment of the paragraph vary
 odd additional information either at the end of the paper or in the header of footer
 fragments of text that indicate material may have been copied from another
source; web page – such as “click here”
 changes of font style, size or color

78. PLAGIARISM
• Citation Clues
old or clustered around a particular date in the past
are not readily available
materials from a particular country unrelated to the topic of the
paper
citations in the text do not match the material in the bibliography
and vice versa
use of general citations for specific pieces of detailed information
a general lack of citation
 whether or not sources listed in the bibliography
distinct, well written, sections that lack citation
mixed citation styles (APA the Chicago)

79. PLAGIARISM
• Style Clues
 Writing is inconsistent with previous work
 Sections change in tense, grammar, spelling or fluency of language in
distinct ways
 Historic events referred to in the present, or even future tense
• Content Clues
 Off topic
 Do not reflect/develop the requirement of the research topic
 Disjoint and lack a sense of coherence
 Mix every general information with sections containing very detailed and
specific information of a complex or sophisticated nature
 Contains very long, grammatically correct, and complex sentences

80. RESEARCH DESIGN
• refers to whether the study is quantitative or qualitative
• also refers to a scheme or plan of action to meet the objectives of
the research
• should be consistent with the framework of the study
• must embody the spirit and direction of the study
• provides the glue that holds the research project together
• is used to structure the research, to show how all the major parts of
the research project – the samples or groups, measures, treatment
or programs, and methods of assignment – work together to try to
address the research questions

81. COLLECTING THE DATA
• Primary Sources of Data – are those that are provide
information that are collected for the first time as part of the
research project.
• Secondary Sources of Data – are those that provide
information which have been collected previously and reported
by some individuals other than the present researcher.

82. COLLECTING THE DATA
• A good research is largely dependent on the kind of data collected.
A. Instrumentation
 Questionnaire
 Interview guide / Schedule
 Observation
 Tests
 Use of existing data / Secondary Sources
B. Administration of Instruments
 Self – administered
 Researcher - facilitated

83. QUESTIONNAIRE
• means of collecting data
• 2 ways
1. Closed or restricted form – “yes” or “no”, item checking
 Fairly easy to interpret, tabulate and summarize
2. Open or unrestricted form – calls for free response; allows for
greater depth of response
 Difficult to interpret, tabulate and summarize

84. INTERVIEW
• a direct face-to-face attempt to obtain data from one or more
respondents; roles of interviewer and the respondents change
continually
• 2 ways
1. Structured – rigidly standardized and formal
2. Unstructured – flexible

85. INTERVIEW
• Participant Observation – researcher becomes a participant in
the culture or context being observed.
• Direct Observation – suggests a more detached perspective.
• Unstructured Interviewing – direct interaction between the
researcher and the respondent or group.

86. RECORDING THE DATA
• What people say, what they think, how they feel, what they have
done and what they know can be captured during the Focus Group
Discussion (FGD).
• The raw data of the interviews are the actual words spoken by the
participants.
• The tape recorder is the indispensable equipment of the researcher.
• Non-verbal language has also to be recorded.
• Use scripting; only key words are to be written.
• Only those data needed are to be transcribed.

87. RECORDING THE DATA
• Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is an interview with a group of
people on a specific topic.
 The accepted size is 6 – 10 participants.
 It should not last longer than ½ to 2 hours.
 The participants are relatively homogeneous group of people.
 The primary data of in-depth and open ended interviews are
quotations.

88. DATA PROCESSING
• Quantitative and qualitative data are converted into codes.
1. Categorize the data based on the research objectives or
purpose.
2. Code data either numerically or alphabetically.
3. Tabulate data using a master tabulation sheet.
4. Analyze data using appropriate statistical tools.

89. STATISTICAL TREATMENT
• As cited by Best and Kahn (2008), statistic is the servant, not the
master of logic; therefore, it is a means rather than an end of
research.
1. Statistics is considered a language of research.
2. Statistical tools enable the researcher to discover relationship
between variables, develop generalizations to explain a
phenomenon, and predict future occurrences.
3. The use of appropriate statistical tools assures objectivity of the
research analysis.

90. DATA ANALYSIS
• Factors to be considered:
1. Research Problems/Objectives
 What do the data mean in the light of research objectives?
 What is the most appropriate statistical tool to apply in order to
answer the problems/objectives?
2. Code data either numerically or alphabetically
3. Tabulate data using master tabulation sheet
4. Analyze data using appropriate statistical tools

91. PRESENTING DATA
A. Tabular Presentation
1. One way Table – one indicator is used (Example:
Frequency and Percentage)
Table 1.
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
Sex Number Percentage
Male 128 60.38
Female 84 39.62
Total 212 100.00

92. PRESENTING DATA
A. Tabular Presentation
2. Cross Tabulation – looks at relationship of Variables
Table 2.
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex and Academic
Performance
Academic Competence
Male Female Total
No. % No. % No. %
Advance 32 30.19 74 69.81 106 100
Struggling 96 90.57 10 9.43 106 100
Total 128 60.38 84 39.62 212 100

93. EXERCISE
• Construct a dummy tables corresponding to the following
research objectives.
1. Compare the achievement test performance of Junior High
School learners by grade level; and
2. Compare the achievement test performance of Junior High
School learners by year level for School Year 2014 – 2015 and
2015 – 2016.

94. Table 3.
Distribution of Respondents by Year Level and Test Performance
Test Performance
Grade
7
Grade
8
Grade
9
Grade
10
Total
# % # % # % # % # %
High
Average
Low
Total

95. Table 4.
Distribution of Respondents by Test Performance, Grade Level and School
Year
Test
Performance
School Year 2014 –
2015
School Year 2015 -
2016 Total
7 8 9 10 7 8 9 10
# % # % # % # % # % # % # % # % # %
High
Average
Low
Total

96. PRESENTING DATA
B. Graphical Presentation – use of graphs to present data
Figure 1.
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
0
50
100
Male Female

97. PRESENTING DATA
B. Graphical Presentation – use of graphs to present data
Figure 2.
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
Male
Female

98. PRESENTING DATA
B. Graphical Presentation – use of graphs to present data
Figure 3.
Distribution of Respondents According to Sex
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Male Female Total

99. PRESENTING DATA
• Textual Presentation precedes the table. It is a
mixture of words and numbers.
• Points to remember:
1. Textual presentation should be as complete as possible so that the
ideas conveyed in the table are understood.
2. Textual presentation is generally followed by an interpretation,
inference or implication.
3. Findings in the present study should be compared with the findings of
other studies.

100. PRESENTING DATA
• Qualitative Studies – results use data analysis methods to
provide description and explanation with an expectation of
increasing understanding to inform practice.
• Qualitative Studies – requires understanding, digesting,
synthesizing, conceptualizing and conceptualizing descriptions
of feelings, behaviors, experiences and ideas.
• Quantitative Studies – may predict aside from describe and
explain because the assumptions behind them is that results
can be generalized to other groups. Quantitative data analysis
allow us to infer what would happen with other similar groups
based on what was found in the present study.

101. DATA INTERPRETATION
• Interpretation
involves making inferences pertinent to the research
relations (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993)
is the stage of the research process where the
researcher is ready to contribute to the present state
of knowledge
reflects the researcher’s own understanding of the
research results which are guided by logic and
reason, established theories and previous findings
in case the data do not support previous findings, the
researcher should provide clarification in order to

102. DATA INTERPRETATION
• Points to remember
A contradictory result does not mean the study is bad
or incorrect but it suggest the ideas of further
investigation.
An unexpected result may be attributed to research
design, sampling, instrument, data gathering
procedure and statistical treatment. Thus any
weakness or limitation should be discussed honestly
and frankly.
Intentionally changing the research result in order to
satisfy one’s expectation in unethical and considered

103. SUMMING IT UP!
• Results and Analyses
 The longest part of the paper.
 It discusses the results and findings of the study presented in a
systematic, straight forward and unbiased way.
 Should be geared to the research problems and hypotheses.
 Tables and figures should be discussed clearly and substantially.
 Only objective data on the tables are made as bases of discussion.
 In the discussion, present first the findings and then analyse the
same pointing out the typical result (e.g. average or majority).