This document discusses various methods used in education research, including different types of research designs, sampling methods, research instruments, and ethical considerations. It describes common research designs like experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, qualitative, correlational, and historical research. It also outlines important aspects of research like defining the target population, selecting an appropriate sample, addressing sampling biases, and ensuring research instruments are valid and reliable. Finally, it discusses ethical standards in research involving human subjects.

1. Methods of Education Research
Most Common Methods,
Controversies, and Ethical
Considerations related to Methods
and Research Instruments
Olatokunbo S. Fashola, Ph.D. Adjunct Research Scientist,
Faculty Associate, Johns Hopkins University

2. Different Types of Research
n Basic Research
n Applied Research
n Evaluation Research
n Action Research

3. Additional types of research
n Historical Research
n Descriptive Research
n Correlational Research
n Causal Comparative Research/ Quasi-
Experimental Research
n Experimental Research

4. Who are your ““people?””
n What is your population of interest
–– To whom would you like the results to be
generalized?
–– How do you select your sample in a way that
enables you to generalize the results to this
sample?
–– What do you wish to generalize to this sample?
–– What are some ways of selecting an
appropriate Population?

5. How and why are you sampling?
n Random Sampling
n Stratified Sampling
n Cluster Sampling
n Systematic Sampling
n Some challenges to sampling include:
–– Sampling Bias
–– Size
–– Population
–– Self Selection
–– Snowballing
–– Available group use
n How will you inform your funders that you have
addressed these challenges/threats?

6. Research Instruments
n Assessments to be administered to determine
effectiveness or impact?
n Developer Created versus Externally Developed?
n Standardized Tests
–– Things to look for include:
–– Validity Define Validity
» Construct, Content, Item, Concurrent, Sampling Face,
Predictive, Construct
–– Reliability Define Reliability
» Inter-rater, Test-Retest, Equivalent Forms, Split Half
n Observation
–– Questionnaires
–– Surveys
n Focus Groups

7. Ethical considerations
n Right to refuse to be involved
n Right to stop being involved
n Strategies for achieving and maintaining support
from participants (schools, universities)
n Training others to implement the treatment.
n No harming of students (minimal risk)
n Subject’’s right to privacy
n Parental consent
n Collecting data without permission
n Sharing of data

8. Ethical Considerations
n Refusal of treatment to participants who may
need it
n Advocacy versus research
n Gould Experiment
n Tuskegee (syphilis study)
n AIDS study (overseas)
n Aspirin and Heart Attack study
n When is enough enough?
–– Zimbardo Prison Study
–– Milgrim Study

9. Two pieces of legislation on
ethics
n National Research Act of 1974
–– Approval of the study by an external organized group
prior to implementation of the study (IRB)
» No harm
» Informed consent
» Parental or guardian permission(signatures)
n Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
(Buckley)
–– Privacy of educational records of students
» e.g. recoding student id numbers
» Masking direct access to student records

10. Descriptive Research
n Why conduct descriptive research?
–– How do some of these procedures differ from,
or how are they similar to those of Quantitative
Researchers?
–– Test Hypotheses and answer questions
–– Develop an appropriate instrument for
gathering information
–– Self Reports may include
» Questionnaires, interviews, standardized attitude
scales (likert)

11. Qualitative Research
n Observation
–– Naturalistic
–– Role Playing
–– Case Studies
–– Content analyses (e.g. portfolios)
n Participant Observation
–– Research is embedded in the study
» Uri Triesman
» Slim’’s Cafe

12. Ethnography
n Classroom Based
n School Based
n Enclosed group based
n Any of the above

13. Correlational Studies
n Why conduct correlational studies?
–– Positive
–– Negative
–– Zero
n When would it be good to have a positive
correlation
n When would it be good to have a negative
correlation
n When would it be good to have a zero correlation?

14. Causal Comparative or Quasi
Experimental Designs
n Experimental Group
n Control Group
n Independent Variable (manipulated?)
n Dependent Variable
–– Controlling using matching
–– Comparing subgroups
–– Co-Varying

15. Randomization
n Both groups are equal at the onset of the study
n Causal Relationship between two variables
n Treatment and comparison/control group
n Treatment versus no treatment
n Treatment A versus Treatment B
n Exposure for a determined amount of time
n Post-test
n So what sets this apart from Quasi-experimental
designs?
n Stay Tuned

16. Direct power over independent
variables
n Direct Manipulation
–– Manipulation of at least one independent variable.
Direct and intentional
n Direct Control
–– Direct control over what is provided to each group
n Control of subject variables
–– Pretest scores, pretest performance
n Control of environmental variables
–– Curriculum materials, length of exposure, etc.

17. What’’s the buzz?
n Effect Sizes
n Evidence of Effectiveness
n Impact
n Power Analysis
n Type 1 and Type 2 Errors
n Minimal Detectable Effects
n Interclass/Intraclass Correlations
n Counterfactual (what would have happened if we
had provided this intervention or treatment?)
n Value Added Models
n Single Unit Transfer Variable Assumption

18. Any problems with
Experimental Designs?
n WHAT? Problems? What Problems?
n Threats!!!
n You threatening me?
n Er, no, threats to internal and external validity
n Internal Validity
–– History, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical
regression, differential selection, mortality
n External Validity
–– Pretest-treatment interaction, multiple treatment
interference, experimenter effects, reactive
arrangements (hawthorne effect).