Pulmonary embolism refers to obstruction of the pulmonary artery or its branches by material such as blood clots that originate elsewhere. It is caused by alterations in blood flow, vessel wall factors, or hypercoagulable blood. Clinically, it presents with chest pain, shortness of breath, and hypoxia. Diagnosis involves tests such as D-dimer, CT angiogram, and V/Q scan. Treatment consists of anticoagulation with heparin or warfarin as well as thrombolysis for massive cases. Complications include right heart strain, pulmonary hypertension, and death.

1. BHAGYASREE N P
2ND MSC NURSING
GOVT CON
ALAPPUZHA

2. Definition
 Pulmonary embolus (PE) refers to obstruction of
the pulmonary artery or one of its branches by
material (eg, thrombus, tumor, air, or fat) that
originated elsewhere in the body.

4. causes
 Alterations in blood flow
 Factors in the vessel wall
 Factors affecting the properties of the blood
(procoagulant state):

5. Pathophysiology
Endothelial injury
Stasis or turbulence of blood flow
Blood hypercoagulability

8. CLINICAL FEATURES
 The classic presentation of pulmonary embolism is
the abrupt onset of pleuritic chest pain, shortness
of breath, and hypoxia
 Sudden onset of unexplained dyspnoea
 Pleuritic chest pain and haemoptysis

9. Small/medium pulmonary embolism
 pleuritic chest pain and breathlessness
 Haemoptysis occurs in 30%
 On examination,
 tachypnoeic with a localized pleural rub and often
coarse crackles
 exudative pleural effusion

10. Massive pulmonary embolism
 central chest pain
 Syncope
 On examination,
 tachypnoeic
 tachycardia with hypotension
 The jugular venous pressure (JVP) is raised

11. Multiple recurrent pulmonary emboli
 breathlessness, often over weeks or months
 weakness, syncope on exertion and occasionally
angina
 On examination,
 signs of right ventricular overload with a right
ventricular heave and loud pulmonary second
sound

12. Revised Geneva score for the clinical prediction of a pulmonary embolism
Risk factors
Score
 Age >65 years
+1
 Previous deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary
embolism
+3
 Surgery or fracture within 1month
+2
 Active malignancy
+2

13. Symptoms
 Unilateral leg pain
+3
 Haemoptysis
+2

14. Clinical signs
Heart rate (b.p.m.):
 75-94 +3
 >95 +5
 Pain on leg deep vein palpation and unilateral oedema
+4

15. Clinical probability
 Low 0-3
 Intermediate 4-10
 High >11

16. INVESTIGATIONS
 D-dimer and other circulating markers
 Ischemia-Modified Albumin levels
 White Blood Cell Count
 Arterial blood gases
 Troponin levels
 Brain Natriuretic Peptide

17. Pulmonary angiography

18. V/Q scan

19. Chest x-ray
Signs with relative high specificity but low
sensitivity for acute pulmonary embolism:
 Decreased vascularity in the peripheral lung
(Westermark sign).
 Enlargement of the central pulmonary artery
(Fleischner sign).
 Pleural based areas of increased opacity (Hampton
hump).
 Hemidiaphragm elevation

20. Westermark sign

22. Hampton’s hump

23. MANAGEMENT
 low-dose anticoagulation with standard UFH,
LMWH, or fondaparinux
 heparin 5000 U given subcutaneously every 12
hours
 Anticoagulation together with pneumatic
compression
 Oxygen should be given to all hypoxaemic patients

24. Treatment Acute management
 high-flow oxygen (60-100%)
 intravenous fluids and inotropic agents
 Fibrinolytic therapy
 Surgical embolectomy

25. Anticoagulation and thrombolysis
Anticoagulation
 Unfractionated heparin
 Low-molecular-weight heparin
 Factor Xa Inhibitors
 Fondaparinux
Warfarin

26. Thrombolytic agents
 Alteplase
 Reteplase
 Urokinase
 Streptokinase

27. Vena Cava Filters

29. Complications
Sudden cardiac death
Obstructive shock
Pulseless electrical activity
trial or ventricular arrhythmias
Secondary pulmonary arterial hypertension
Cor pulmonale


30.  Severe hypoxemia
 Right-to-left intracardiac shunt
 Lung infarction
 Pleural effusion
 Paradoxical embolism
 Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia
Thrombophlebitis