1) The document discusses hypothesis testing, which involves proposing hypotheses about population parameters and using sample data to evaluate them. It defines key concepts like null and alternative hypotheses, type 1 and 2 errors, and p-values.
2) Examples are given of common hypothesis tests involving the mean, including one-sample and two-sample tests. Tests can be one-tailed or two-tailed depending on the alternative hypothesis.
3) The general procedure for conducting a hypothesis test is outlined, including defining the population and variables, stating the hypotheses, choosing a statistical test, determining the significance level, and making a decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Random Variable
Discrete Probability Distribution
continuous Probability Distribution
Probability Mass Function
Probability Density Function
Expected value
variance
Binomial Distribution
poisson distribution
normal distribution
Theoretical probability distributions: Binomial, Poisson,
Normal and Exponential and also includes, discrete probability distributions, continuous probability distribution, random variables, sample problems
Random Variable
Discrete Probability Distribution
continuous Probability Distribution
Probability Mass Function
Probability Density Function
Expected value
variance
Binomial Distribution
poisson distribution
normal distribution
Theoretical probability distributions: Binomial, Poisson,
Normal and Exponential and also includes, discrete probability distributions, continuous probability distribution, random variables, sample problems
Running head HYPOTHESIS TEST 1HYPOTHESIS TESTING.docxcowinhelen
Running head: HYPOTHESIS TEST 1
HYPOTHESIS TESTING 7
Project Phase 3 – Scenario 2
Author Note
This paper is being submitted on
Explain the 8 Steps in hypothesis testing.
1. State null hypothesis- this is the opposite of the expected results, the importance of stating the null hypothesis is because according to Karl Popper’s principle or Falsifiabilty, it not possible to exclusively confirm a hypothesis but it is possible to conclusively negate a hypothesis.
2. Alternative hypothesis- this is indication of what the experiment expects. It is stated as not all equal, because despite the fact that it is possible to have not all equal variables it is only one of the many chances. For instance, when comparing effect of infectious disease of the colour of urine the alternative hypothesis can state that disease 1 results in tinting of the colour of urine to yellow but disease 2, 3… and normal un-infected persons do not differ in the colour of urine.
3. Set α- this is the level of significance. This is the probability or chance of committing the ‘grievous’ error type one denoted by α
There are two types of errors;
Reality
decision
H0 is correct
H0 in incorrect
Accept H0
OK
Type 2 error which is the β equal to possibility of type 2 error.
H0 rejected
Type 1 error
α=possibility of type 1 error
OK
4. Data collection- it’s important to use valid data collection techniques possibly for this case use observational or experimental methods
5. Stating and calculating the statistics for the study- this are the statistic values tested which include the mean, population, sample proportion and the difference in mean and sample proportions.
mean
61.82
median
61.50
mode
69.50
Mid-range
58
range
41
variance
79.64
Standard deviation
8.3
6. Decide on the test to be used- there are basically two types of tests; one tailed and two tailed. The decision is reached depending on the spread of error; two tailed is used when error spread is on two extremes side while one tailed test is used when error is spread on one side in the distribution.
7. Create accept and reject regions- a critical F value is established, you can establish the study F value from the statistical tables it is also called the Fα. It represent the minimum value for the study test statistics which determine which values should be rejected. With the value of F you locate it in the F distribution which form the location for boundary for acceptance and rejection.
8. Standardize the test statistics to draw a conclusion- using step 5 and 6 you can make some inference on the study, but to make more specific conclusion computation of z-test will help decide on the whether to reject or accept the hypothesis. In such cases p-value lower then α, then null hypothesis H0 is conclusively negated and therefore should accept the alternative hypothesis HA.
In testing a hypothesis using the above eight steps I prefer using critical value.
This method include the coming up with the unlik ...
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a) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
b) Type I and type II error
c) Acceptance region and rejection region
d) Define level of significance.
e) power of a hypothesis test and its measurement.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2. −𝑍𝛼
2
% Nivel de
Confianza
𝑍𝛼
2
0
X
ത
𝑋 + 𝑍𝛼
2
𝜎
𝑛
ത
𝑋 − 𝑍𝛼
2
𝜎
𝑛
Describe
La variabilidad entre la medida
obtenida en un estudio y la medida real
de la población (el valor real)
INTERVALO DE CONFIANZA
Corresponde a
un rango de valores, cuya distribución es normal y en
el cual se encuentra, con alta probabilidad, el valor real
de una determinada variable.
Probabilidad de estar
dentro del intervalo
Nivel de significación: Probabilidad
de quedar fuera de este intervalo
𝛼= Nivel de significación
𝛼/2
𝛼/2
80%
Determine los valores entre los
que esta el 80% de la población
−𝑍𝛼
2
𝑍𝛼
2
𝛼 = Se queda por fuera el 20%
10%
10%
3. Es necesario recordar que la tabla
muestra valores para z desde cero
hasta el punto que determina el área
¿Cómo Usar la tabla para determinar los limites de confianza?
−𝑍𝛼
2
𝑍𝛼
2
Calcule el intervalo de
confianza para el 95%
0
95%
Se requiere que
aquí este el 95%
de la población 2,5%
2,5%
Y el 5% restante se
queda por fuera
del intervalo
0,475
Ejemplo
7. edad
genero
peso
tensión
hábitos
hipótesis estadística
Afirmación o proposición respecto
a alguna característica de una
población, generalmente
fundamentada sobre un
parámetro de la misma.
Contrastar una hipótesis es
comparar las predicciones con la
realidad que observamos
ocurrida en una muestra
Si dentro del margen de error que
estamos dispuestos a admitir, hay
coincidencia, aceptaremos la
hipótesis y en caso contrario la
rechazaremos.
8. Inferencia
Estadística
Estimación de
parámetros
Prueba de hipótesis
Por punto
Por Intervalos
Calcular un valor que
corresponde a una
característica de la
población
De orden cuantitativo,
establece conclusiones
sobre alguna afirmación
o supuesto (Hipótesis)
9. Una hipótesis estadística es un supuesto acerca de algún
parámetro poblacional o sobre alguna situación existente
en la población.
Nula Alternativa
Hipótesis de
la estadística
Hipótesis
del
investigador
La hipótesis nula niega a la
hipótesis alternativa, si la
alternativa dice SI, la nula dice NO
10. En Colombia la edad de muerte
de los afectados por covid-19 es
por encima de los 60 años
Una prueba de
hipótesis es un
procedimiento
estadístico
Que a partir de una
o más muestras
aleatorias
Tomamos la decisión de
rechazar o no un
supuesto (hipótesis)
acerca de la población
Asumiendo un riesgo
(probabilidad de error) de
equivocarnos al tomar la
decisión.
Ejemplo
Realidad: El problema de
contagios covid-19 que esta
causando de problemas
sociales, económicos y que esta
propiciando muertes en todo el
mundo, pero se analiza en
Colombia.
Parámetro: Puntual: Edad de los
contagiados que han muerto.
Formulemos una hipótesis con
respecto al fenómeno social
determinado por el Covid 19
11. Hipótesis Definición Ejemplo
Nula Es la hipótesis que el
procedimiento estadístico somete
a prueba, se formula como
supuesto de no diferencia o
igualdad para el valor poblacional,
o como un supuesto de no
asociación de dos variables
Alterna Sirve para contrastar la hipótesis
nula, usualmente se formula como
un supuesto de diferencia. Es la
hipótesis de trabajo y la que se
espera sea apoyada por los datos
de la muestra
12. Procedimiento a seguir para la realización de una prueba de
hipótesis
Defina supuestos
Identifique
población
Identifique variables
Fallecido, edad, genero
Plantee hipótesis nula y alterna
Elija la prueba estadística
apropiada
Predetermine el nivel de
significancia, para la región
de rechazo
Tome la decisión
90%, 95%,
97%
Los define el
investigador, si no
aparece definido, se
toma el 95%
13. Al tomar la decisión respecto a la Ho, se puede correr el riesgo
de cometer dos distintos tipos de error:
14. Región de rechazo
Región de aceptación
Región de rechazo
Aquí se
cumple la
hipótesis
nula
Aquí se cumple la
hipótesis alterna
Aquí se cumple la
hipótesis alterna
Es una regla general, que en la
zona de aceptación se cumpla
la hipótesis nula y en la de
rechazo se cumpla la hipótesis
alterna.
15. 3ra situación Ho:μ ≤ μo H1:μ > μo Hipótesis unilateral a la derecha
Prueba de hipótesis para la media de una población
Para contrastar la hipótesis nula cuando a la media μ de la población se le
establece algún valor μo en particular, tendríamos las siguientes opciones:
1ra situación Ho: μ = μo H1:μ ≠ μo Hipótesis bilateral
2da situación Ho:μ ≥ μo H1:μ < μo Hipótesis unilateral a la izquierda
16.
17. 𝑍 =
𝑋 − 𝜇
𝜎
𝑛
Teoría de los grandes números
Muestras superiores a 30 datos. N>30
𝑡 =
𝑋 − 𝜇
𝜎
𝑛
Muestras Inferiores a 30 datos. N<=30
Uso de la tabla de distribución normal
Tabla de t-student, definiendo grados
de libertad
19. Como el valor de Z cae en la
zona de aceptación, se
cumple la hipótesis nula,
luego al 95% se concluye
Que la edad de fallecimiento
por covid-19 en Colombia es
a los 60 años, rechazamos la
hipótesis alternativa.
0,05
Pvalor<0,05
HIPÓTESIS ALTERNA
Pvalor>0,05
HIPÓTESIS NULA
Pvalor=0.7446623>0,05
Solución: La edad de mayor posibilidad de contagio y de progreso de la
enfermedad es después de los 50 años.
20. La duración de las bombillas de 100 watt que fabrica una empresa sigue una distribución normal con una
desviación de 120 horas. Su vida media está garantizada durante un mínimo de 800 horas.
Se escoge al azar una muestra de 50 bombillas de un lote y, después de comprobarlas, se obtiene una vida media
de 750 horas.
Con un nivel de significación de 0,01, ¿habría que rechazar el lote por no cumplir la garantía?
𝜎 = 120 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠
n= 50
ത
𝑋 = 750 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠
𝜇 = 800 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠
𝛼 = 1% 𝑍𝛼 = 99%
Ho: La vida mínima de las bombilla esta
por encima de las 800 horas.
Ha: La vida mínima de las bombillas esta
por debajo de las 800 horas
Como el valor de Z cae en la zona de rechazo, acepto la
hipótesis alterna, luego al 99% el fabricante de bombillas
esta incumpliendo, por que de 50 bombilla que se
examinaron estas están por debajo de la media establecida
21. La edad de por fallecimiento para covid-19 en Colombia esta por encima de los 60 años.
Comprobar al 95% que esto es cierto
Ho: La edad promedio de muerte por
covid-19 en Colombia esta por debajo de
los 60 años.
Ho: 𝜇 < 60
Ha: La edad promedio de muerte por
covid-19 en Colombia esta por encima de
los 60 años
Ha: 𝜇 > 60
Como el valor de z cae en la zona de aceptación, se
cumple la hipótesis nula, luego al 95% en Colombia, la
edad promedio de fallecimiento por Covid-19 esta por
debajo de los 60 años.
22. La edad de las personas que están hospitalizadas por covid-19 en Colombia esta es de 75
años. Comprobar al 92% que esto es cierto
Ho: La edad de las personas
hospitalizadas por covid-19 en Colombia
no es a los 75 años.
Ho: 𝜇 ≠ 75
Ha: a edad de las personas hospitalizadas
por covid-19 en Colombia es a los 75 años
Ha: 𝜇 = 75
Como el valor de Z cae en la zona de rechazo, acepto
la hipótesis alterna, luego las personas hospitalizadas
por covid 19 al 92%, tienen un promedio de edad de
75 años.