Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine (-NH2) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups' locations as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side-chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles, cells and other tissues.Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances which is insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol , ether etc.), Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids.
Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine (-NH2) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups' locations as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side-chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles, cells and other tissues.Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances which is insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol , ether etc.), Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids.
Gives in detail primary, secondary, tertiary and Quaternary structure of proteins. Gives classification of secondary structure: alpha helix, beta pleated sheet and different types of tight turns and explains most commonly found tight turn in proteins i.e. beta turn. Briefs about the Ramachandran plot of proteins, dihedral or torsion angles and explains why glycine and proline act as alpha helix breakers. Explains tertiary structure of proteins and different covalent and non covalent bonds in the tertiary structure and relative importance of these bonding interactions. Details about the quaternary structure of proteins and explains why hemoglobin is a quaternary protein and insulin is not.
A non-covalent interaction differs from a covalent bond in that it does not involve the sharing of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions between molecules or within a molecule.
essential topic on bio molecule:
They are naturally occurring polypeptides that contain more than 50 amino acid units. therefore a protein is a hetero polymer.
Most abundant organic molecules of the living system.
They form about 50% of the dry weight of the cell.
They are most important for the architecture and functioning
of the cell.
Proteins on complete hydrolysis yields Amino Acids
There are 20 standard amino acids which are repeatedly found in the structure of proteins – animal, plant or microbial.
Collagen is the most abundant animal protein and Rubisco is the most abundant plant protein
Protein Synthesis is controlled by DNA.
They are substituted methane (CH4)
Amino acids are group of organic compounds having 2 functional groups (-NH2) and (-COOH)
(-NH2) group is basic whereas (-COOH) is acidic
R- can be H in glycine, CH3 in alanine, Hydroxymethyl in serine
in others it can be hydrocarbon chain or a cyclic group
All amino acids contain C, H, O and N but some of them additionally contain S
Physical and chemical properties of amino acids are due to amino, carboxyl and R functional groups
This was a report regarding amino acids and peptides that was prepared by our group and this report made in order to make a score. Hope this slide makes more it to be on help.
Biomolecules Proteins and Amino Acids.pptxSejalWasule
Biomolecules are molecules that are essential for life. They are organic compounds that are synthesized by living organisms and are involved in many of the processes that sustain life. There are four main categories of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Proteins are biomolecules that are composed of long chains of amino acids. They are involved in a wide range of cellular functions, including catalyzing chemical reactions, providing structural support, and transporting molecules across cell membranes. Proteins can also act as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the body.
Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are composed of nucleotides. There are two main types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA contains the genetic information that is passed from one generation to the next, while RNA is involved in protein synthesis. Overall, biomolecules are essential for the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many of the processes that sustain life. Proteins are large, complex molecules that are essential to life. They are composed of long chains of amino acids, which are organic compounds that contain both an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) bound to the same carbon atom. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure and function.
There are 20 different types of amino acids that can be incorporated into proteins. Each amino acid has a unique side chain, which determines its chemical properties. Some amino acids are hydrophobic (repel water), while others are hydrophilic (attract water). Amino acids can also be acidic or basic, and some have other unique properties, such as the ability to form disulfide bonds.
When amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds, they form a polypeptide chain. The sequence of amino acids in the chain determines the shape of the protein, which is critical to its function. Proteins can have several levels of structure, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. Primary structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. Secondary structure refers to the regular patterns of folding that occur within the polypeptide chain, such as alpha helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional shape of the protein, which is determined by the interactions between the amino acid side chains. Quaternary structure refers to the way that multiple polypeptide chains come together to form a functional protein. Proteins have many important roles in the body, including catalyzing chemical reactions (as enzymes), transporting molecules across cell membranes (as transport proteins), and providing structural support (as collagen). They are also involved in the immune system (as antibodies), signaling pathways (as receptors), and energy metabolism (as enzymes and carriers).
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. Introduction
Proteins are the most abundant organic
molecules of the living system
They occur in every part of the cell and constitute
about 50% of the cellular dry weight
They form the fundamental basis of structure and
function of life
3. Origin
The term protein is derived from a Greek word
Proteios, meaning holding the first place
Mulder (Dutch chemist) in 1983 used the term
proteins for the higher molecular weight nitrogen-
rich and most abundant substances present in
animals and plants
4. Functions of proteins
Static (structural) functions:
e.g. Elastin, collagen, α-Kertain
Dynamic functions:
As enzymes, hormones, blood clotting factors,
immunoglobulin, membrane receptors, storage
proteins, muscle contraction, respiration (working
horses of cell)
5. Elemental composition of proteins
Proteins are predominantly constituted by five
major elements in the following proportion
Carbon 50-55%
Hydrogen 6-7.3%
Oxygen 19-24%
Nitrogen 13-19%
Sulfur 0-4%
Beside these proteins also contain other elements
as P, Fe, Cu, I, Mg, Mn, Zn etc
6. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and yield
L-α-amino acids on complete hydrolysis with
concentrated HCL for several hours
7. Standard amino acids
As many as 300 amino acids occur in nature- of
these only 20-known as standard amino acids are
repeatedly found in the structure of proteins
isolated from different forms of life –animal, plant
and microbial
This is because of the universal nature of the
genetic code available for the incorporation of
only 20 amino acids
8. Amino acids
Amino acids are a group of organic compounds
containing two functional group
Amino (-NH2)-basic
Carboxyl (-C00H)-acidic
9. General structure
The amino acids are termed as α-amino acids if both
the carboxyl and amino groups are attached to the same
carbon atom
The Alpha carbon atom binds to side chain represented by
R which is different for each of the 20 amino acids
11. B. Classification based on polarity
Four groups
1. Non-amino acids
These are also referred to as hydrophobic. They
have no charge on the “R” group
e.g. alanine, leucine, isoleucine
2. Polar amino acids with no charge on R group
They posses groups such as hydroxyl, sulfhydryl
and amide and participate in hydrogen bonding
of protein structure
Glycine, serine, threonine, cysteine,
12. 3. Polar amino acids with positive R group
e.g. lysine, arginine and histidine are included in
this group
4. Polar amino acids with negative R group
e.g. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid
13. c. Nutritional classification of amino
acids
1. Essential or indispensible amino acids
The amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the
body and therefore need to be supplied through
the diet
They are required for proper growth and
maintenance of individuals
e.g. PVT TIM HALL
14. 2. Non-essential or dispensable amino acids
The body can synthesize about 10 amino acids to
meet the biological needs hence they cannot be
consumed in the diet
e.g. Glycine, alanine, serine serine, cysteine,
aspartate, asparagine, glutamate, glutamine,
tyrosine, proline
15. D. Classification based on their
metabolic fate
The carbon skeleton of amino acids can serve as a
precursor for the synthesis of glucose
(glucogenic) or fat (ketogenic) or both
Three groups:
1. Glycogenic amino acids (alanine, aspartate,
glycine, methionine)
2. Ketogenic amino acids (leucine, lysine)
3. Glycogenic and ketogenic (isoleucine, phenyl
alanine, tryptophan, tyrosine)
16. Selenocysteine-the 21st amino acid
It is found at the active site of various
enzymes/proteins (selenoproteins) eg Glutathione
peroxidase, glycine reductase
It contain the trace element selenium in place of
the sulfur atom of cysteine
Codon UGA
17. Physical properties of amino acids
1. Solubility:
Most of the amino acids are usually soluble in water
and insoluble in organic solvents
2. Melting point:
Generally melt at higher temperature often above
200o
C
3. Taste:
They may be sweet , tasteless or bitter
18. 4. Optical properties:
All the amino acids except glycine posses optical
isomers due to the presence o asymmetric
carbon atom
5. Amino acids as ampholytes
Amino acids contain both acidic (-COOH) and basic
(-NH2) groups. The can donate and accept a
proton
Zwitterion or dipolar ion
19. Chemical properties
The general reactions of amino acids are mostly
due to the presence of two functional groups
Carboxyl group
Amino group
20. Reactions due to –COOH group
1. Amino acids form salts with bases and esters
with alcohol
2. Amino acids undergo decarboxylation producing
corresponding amines (histamine, tyramine)
3. The carboxyl group of dicarboxylic amino acids
reacts with ammonia to form amide
Aspartic acid + NH3 Asparagine
Glutamic acid + NH3 glutamine
21. Reactions due to –NH2 group
1. The amino groups behave as bases and
combine with acids to form salt
2. The amino acids react with ninhydrin to form a
purple, blue or pink colour complex
(Ruhemann’s purple)
3. Colour reaction of amino acids: amino acids can
be identified by specific colour reactions
4. Transamination
5. Oxidative deamination
22. Non-standard amino acids
Amino acid derivatives in proteins
e.g. Collagen, Histone, cystine
Non-protein amino acids
They may be either alpha or non alpha amino acids
e.g. Ornithine, Citrulline, thyroxine
D-amino acids
The vast majority of aa isolated from animals and plants
are of L-category. Certain D-amino acids are found in
the antibiotics.
D-alanine and D-glutamic acid are found in bacterial cell
wall
D-serine and D-aspartate are found in brain tissues
23. Structure of Proteins
The structure of proteins can be divided into four
levels of organization
1. Primary structure
2. Secondary structure
3. Tertiary structure
4. Quaternary structure
24. Primary structure of proteins
Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids
which is determined by the genes contained in a
DNA.
The primary structure is largely responsible for its
function
A vast majority of genetic disorders are due to
abnormalities in the primary structure of proteins
Peptide bond
Characteristics of peptide bonds
The peptide bond is rigid and planar with partial double
bond in character. Both –C=O and –NH groups of
peptide bonds are polar and are involved in hydrogen
bon formation
25. Writing of peptide structures:
Conventionally the peptide chains are written with
the free amino end (N-terminal) at the left and the
free carboxyl end (C-terminal) at the right.
The amino acid sequence is read from N-terminal
end to C-terminal end
The protein synthesis also starts from the N-
terminal amino acid
26. Shorthand to read peptides:
The amino acids in a peptide or proteins are
represented by the 3-letter or one letter abbreviation.
This is chemical shorthand to write proteins
Naming of peptides:
The suffixes –ine, -an, -ate are changed to –yl with the
exception of C-terminal amino acid
H3N-glutamate-cysteine-glycine-COO-
E C G
Glu Cys Gly
Glutamyl Cysteinyl Glycine