The document acknowledges the contributions that supported a project on robotics, detailing the history and purpose of robots, their definitions, and basic functionalities. It explores components critical to robotics like sensors, actuators, and the robot control loop, along with applications in various fields such as medicine and assembly. Furthermore, it introduces basic electronics concepts including voltage, current, and the use of components like LEDs and the 555 timer IC in practical applications.

2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of our friends and mywbut
. We would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
We are highly indebted to mywbut for their guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding
the project & also for their support in completing the project.
We would like to express my gratitude towards my parents ,friends &
member of mywbut for their kind co-operation and encouragement
which help me in completion of this project.
We would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to all
persons for giving us such attention and time.

3. INTRODUCTION:-
ORIGIN OF THE WORD ROBOT:-
-The word robot was first used more than 60
years ago by karel capek,a Czechoslovakian
writer , in his play R.UR., or Rossum”s universal
Robot.
-He derived robot from the Czech word robota
which means “drudgery” or “compulsory
labor”.
-later in a letter written by him to oxford
English Dictionary, he is reported to have
quoted his brother Josef capek as the actual
originator.

4. Defination of Robots:-
A reprogrammable,Multifunctional
manipulator designed to
move,parts,tools or specialized devices
through various programmed motions for the
performance of variety of tasks.
-The science of building and programming
robots.
-A machine whose behavior can be
programmed.
-A robot have ability of sense and giving
interact to the outer world or a physical
output.
-Surprisingly,there is no exact definition of a
robot
-Today, people use “robot”for almost any
machine
designed to be clever.

5. THE ROBOT CONTROL LOOP:-

6. Sensors:- Sensors provide
awareness of the environment by sensing
things. Sensors are the core of robots. It is the
system that alerts the robots.
sensing can be in different forms like:-
-light
-sound
-heat
-chemicals
-force
-object proximity
-Magnetic & Electric Fields
-Physical orientation
-resists

7. -:ACTUATORS:-
LOCOMOTION:-
-leg
-wheels
-Other exotic means
MANIPULATIONS:-
Degree of freedom-independently controllable
components of motion.
Arms:-
-convenient method to allow full movement in 3d
-more often used in fixed robots due to power & weight.
-even more difficult of freedom
Grippers:-
-may be very simple to pick up objects.
-may be complex device with fingers on the end of an
arm.
-probably need feedback to control grip force.

8. DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Each plane in which a robot can maneuver:-
-ROTATAE BASE OF ARM
-PIVOT BASE OF ARM
-BEND ELBOW
-WRIST UP AND DOWN
-WRIST LEFT AND RIGHT
-ROTATE WRIST
THE PURPOSE OF ROBOTS:-
- dirty tasks
-Repetitive tasks.
-Dangerous tasks.
-impossible tasks
-Robots assisting the handicapped.
-Can operate equipments at much higher precious
than humans.
-cheaper on a long term basis

9. EXPLORATION:-
-Space Missions.
-Robots in the Antarctic.
-Underwater Exploration.
MEDICAL SCIENCE:-
-surgical assistant
ASSEMBLY:-
FACTORIES PARTS-
-handling
-assembly
-painting
-surveillance
-security
-Home help
ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS

10. BASIC ELECTRONICS
ELECTRICITY CAN BE BROKEN
DOWN INTO:-
Electric charge
Voltage
Current
resistance
Electrically , all materials fall
into three catagories:-
CONDUCTORS
INSULATORS
SEMI-CONDUCTORS

11. CONDUCTORS:-
Have 1 valence electrons
Materials in which electron can move
freely from atom to atom .
Metals are good conductors
Its allow current to flow with
minimum resistance.
INSULATORS:-
Have 8 valence electrons.
Material in which electrons tend to
stay put and do not flow easily from
atom to atom.
Its used to prevent the flow of
electricity
SEMICONDUCTORS:-
Have 4 valence electrons
Material which are neither
conductors nor insulators.
Example are carbon, germanium and
silicon
At O’K it acts as insulators, above O’K
it acts as conductors.

12. VOLTAGE:-
It refers to the possibility of doing work
Any charge has the potential to do the work of
attracting a similar charge or repulsing an
opposite charge.
Symbol is ‘E’ or ‘V’
Unit is ‘VOLT’ (V)
1 volt is a measure of the amount of work
required to move 1C of charge.
CURRENT:-
When charge is forced to move because of a
potential difference current is produced.
Free electrons can be forced to move with
relative ease,since they require little work to
be moved.
So current is charge in motion.
The more electrons in motion the greater the
current.
Symbol is ‘I’.
Unit is ‘Ampre’(A).
“VOLTAGE IS THE
CAUSE AND CURRENT
IS THE EFFECTS.”

13. RESISTANCE:-
-Opposition to the flow of current is
tremed as resistance.
-The fact that a wire can become hot
from the flow of current is evidence of
resistance.
-Conductors haver very little resistance.
-Insulators have large amounts of
resistance.
-Symbol is ‘R’.
-Unit is ‘ohm’
CIRCUITS:- A circuits is a closed path
in which electricity always flow and do
something useful work.
-CLOSE CIRCUITS
-OPEN CIRCUITS
D.C:-
-D.C stands for ‘DIRECT CURRENT’
Circuits that are powered by battery
sources are termed DC.
-This is because the battery maintains the
same polarity of output voltage. The plus
and minus sides remains constant.
Flow of charges in one direction.

14. A.C:-
-AC stands for ‘ALTERNATING
CURRENT’
-The resulting current ,
therefore periodically reverse in
direction.
-The power output in our India
is 50 Hz.
-All audio signals are AC also.
Ohm’s Law:-
-The amount of currents in a
circuit is dependent on its
resistance and -the applied
voltage. Specifically I=E/R
-Current I=E/R
-Voltage E=IR
-RESISTANCE R=E/I

15. WIRING:
-

16. LED:-
Its stands for ‘LIGHT EMITTING DIODE’
A light emitting diode is essentially a PN
junction opto-semiconductor that emits a
monochromatic light when operated in a
forward biased direction.
LEDs convert electrical energy into light
energy.
Due to the cutting voltage (Vc) or forwarde
voltage drops led produced different color
band.
TYPICAL CUTTING VOLTAGE FOR
COMMON 5MM LED-
RED≈ 1.66V-2.2V (2V)
GREEN≈2.5V-3.8V (2.8)
BLUE≈2.8V-5V (3.3V)
WHITE≈2.8V-5V (3.3V)
SERIES LED CONNECTION IS
ADVANTAGEOUS OVER PARALLEL:-
-In series connection voltage remains difference
that depends upon voltage source
-but, in parallel current remain difference but does
not depends upon voltage source, it depends upon
the chemical composition of elements which is not
possible to know .
‘So series connection is advantageous over
parallel one’

17. RESISTORS:-
-A resistors is a passive two-
terminal electrical component.
-It reduced flow of current in circuit
- Unit is Ohm (Ω)
TYPES OF RESISTORS:-
FIXED RESISTORS
VARIABLE RESISTORS
SOME COMMON RESISTORS
VALUE:-
BrBOG-10k
GrVRG-4K7
BrBRG-1K
RRBrG-220E
BrBBrG-100E

18. MOSEFET:-
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET)
is a type of field-effect transistor (FET). It has an
insulated gate, whose voltage determines the
conductivity of the device. This ability to change
conductivity with the amount of applied voltage
can be used for amplifying or switching electronic
signals. Although FET is sometimes used when
referring to MOSFET devices, other types of field-
effect transistors also exist.
Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device
with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B)
terminals, the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET
is often connected to the source terminal, making it
a three-terminal device like other field-effect
transistors. Because these two terminals are
normally connected to each other (short-circuited)
internally, only three terminals appear in electrical
diagrams.
The main advantage of a MOSFET over a regular
transistor is that it requires very little current to
turn on (less than 1mA), while delivering a much
higher current to a load (10 to 50A or more).
The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor
in both digital and analog circuits, though the
bipolar junction transistor was at one time much
more common.

19. -:IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:-
Several types of both linear switching regulators are available in integrated
circuits form.
Generally the linear regulators are three terminal devices, that provides
either positive or negative output voltage.
The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi applied
to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo from second
terminal,and the third terminal grounding.
7805 FIXED VOLTAGE REGULATOR:-
The series 7805 regulators are the three terminal
devices that provides a fixed positive output voltage.
An unregulated input voltage Vi is filtered by a
capacitor C1 and connected to the IC’s IN terminal.
The IC’s OUT terminal provides a regulated +12V
which is filtered by capacitor C.
The third IC terminal is connected to ground.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 7805 VOLTAGE
REGULATOR-
-Linear
-D.C
-positive to positive
-fixed output voltage regulator.
CAPACITOR USED IN CIRCUIR -
To Aviod voltage lag.
To Removing pulsating A.C.

20. PARTAMETER 7805C
MIN TYP MAX
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
IO-5mA – 1A, Vi-7V to
20V, PD≤15W
25O
C
4.8 5 5.2
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
IO-5mA – 1A, Vi-7V to
20V, PD≤15W
0O
C to 125o
C
4.75 5.25
DROUPOUT
VOLTAGR
IO=1A 2
REQUIRED DATA:-
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

21. PARTAMETER 7805C
MIN TYP MAX
LINE
REGULATION
VI-VO=3V to 40V 0.01 0.04
REFERENCE
VOLTAGE
VI-VO=2.5V to 40v,
PD≤20W,IO=10Ma to
1500mA
1.2 1.25 1.3
INPUT VOLTAGE 0.3V 40V
LM-317 ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE
REGULATOR-
Voltage regulator are also available in
circuit configurations that allows to set
the output voltage to a desired regulated
value.
The LM317 is an example of an adjustable
voltage regulator.
It can be operated over range of voltage
from 1.2 to 37V.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LM317
VOLTAGE REGULATOR-
Variable voltage Output.
D.C Output
Positive voltage regulator
Three terminals regulator.
REQUIRED DATA:-

22. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

23. -:555 TRIMER IC:-
INTRODUCTION:-
Introduced by signetics in 1972, most
popular is NE555 by STM electronics and
Fairchild Semiconductor.
The 555timer IC is an integrated circuit used
in a variety of timer , pulse generation , and
oscillator applications.
The 555 is used to provide time delay, as an
oscillator , and as a flip-flop element.
It gets its name from the three 5k ohm
resistors which give the two comparators
reference voltage.
Depending on the manufacture , the
standard 555 package include 25 trasistors ,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip
installed in an 8-PIN DIP package.
It is available in low power CMOS type
ICM7555 package and 556 Dual Timer with
two timer in one IC and 558 which is Quad
timer.

24. INTERNAL LAYOUT:-

25. VOLTAGE DIVIDER
VOLTAGE DIVIDER NETWORK-
Resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series .Each resistors is 5k
ohms,so one third of the 5v supply voltage drops across each-time

26. CURRENT DIVIDER:-
A current divider circuit is a circuit in which the main current from the
power source is divided up in the circuit and, thus, different amounts of
current are allocated to different parts of the circuit.
MATHEMATICAL FORMULA:-

27. -Two voltage comparator are inside the 555IC.
-Whenever the voltage is higher at the + input , the output value is + .
-The output is 0 volts under all other conditions.
VOLTAGE COMPARATOR

28. THE FLIP FLOP
RS FLIP-FLOP-
Whenever the output of comparator A is a positive voltage, the Q
BAR output become a positive voltage , which is called a LOGIC HIGH.

29. THE DISCHARGE TRANSISTORS
NPN TRANSISTORS-
-The NPN transistor acts like a switch.
-It turns on and passes current between the emitter and the collector when a -
positive voltage is present at the base

30. THE OUTPUT BUFFER
--It produced a high voltage.
-It’s provides sufficient output to power external circuit.
-The output buffer receives its input from the QBAR Output of the
RS flip-flop.
-The buffer’s output voltage goes positive when the QBAR terminal
of the RS flip-flopis a logic low.

31. PIN DESCRIPTION
PIN 1- GROUND- The ground pin
connects the 555 trimer to the negative
supply rail.
PIN 2-TRIGGER- When ‹1/3 VCC this
makes the output high. It monitors the
discharging of the timing capacitor in an
astable circuit.
PIN 3-OUTPUT-The output pin can
drive any TTL circuit and is capable of
sourcing or sinking up to 200 mA of
current at an equal to VCC-1.5V so small
speakers , LED’s or motors can be
connected directly to the output.
PIN 4-RESET-When less than about
0.7V this makes the output low
,overriding other inputs. When not
required it should be connected to +VCC.
PIN 5-CONTROL VOLTAGE-This
can be used to adjust the threshold
voltage which is set internally to be 2/3
VCC . Usually this function is not required
to 0V with a 10 nF capacitor to eliminate
electrical noise.

32. PIN 6-THRESHOLD- When ›2/3 VCC this make the output low. It monitors
the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.
PIN 7-DISCHARGE- The discharge pin is connected directly to the collector
of an internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor
to ground when the output at pin 3 switch “LOW”.
PIN 8-Supply +Vcc- This is the power supply pin and for general purpose
TTL 555 timers is between 4.5V and 15V (18V absolute Maximum).

33. MODES OF OPERATION
The 555 Timer IC has three
modes of operation-
MONOSTABLE:In this mode, the 555
functions as a "one-shot"pulse generator.
Applications include timers, bounce free
switches ,touch switches, frequency divider
and so on.
BISTABLE: The 555 can operate as a flip-
flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no
capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-
freelatched switches.
ASTABLE, the free running mode: The
555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse
generation ,logic clocks, tone generation,
security alarms, pulse position modulation
and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple
ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse
length.

34. The 555 timeracts as a “single" pulse
generator.
The pulse begins when the 555 timer receives
a signal at the trigger input that falls below a
third of the voltage supply.
The width of the output pulse is determined
by the time constant of an RC network, which
consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R).
The output pulse ends when the voltage on
the capacitor equals 2/3 of the supply
voltage.
The output pulse width can be lengthened or
shortened to the need of the specific
application by adjusting the values of R and C.
MONOSTABLE MODE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MONOSTABLE MODE
The output pulse width of time t, which
is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of
the supply voltage, is given by
t=RC ln (3)
where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and
C is in farads. While using the timer IC
in monostable mode, the main
disadvantage is that the time span
between any two triggering pulses
must be greater than the RC time
constant.

35. BIASTABLE MODE
Bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a
flip-flop. The trigger and reset Inputs are
held high via Pull-up resistors while the
threshold input is simply grounded. Thus
configured, pulling the trigger
momentarily to ground acts as a set and
transitions the output pin to Vcc (high
state). Pulling the reset input to ground
acts as a reset‘ and transitions the
output pin to ground (low state). No
capacitors are required in a bistable
configuration. Pin 5 (control) is
connected to ground via a small-value
capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1 uF); pin
7(discharge) is left floating.
ASTABLE MODE
In astable mode, the 555 timer puts
out a continuous stream of
rectangular pulses having a
specified frequency. the capacitor
is charged through R1 and R2, and
discharged only through R2, since
pin 7 has low Impedance to ground
during output low intervals of the
cycle, therefore discharging the
capacitor .In the astable mode, the
frequency of the pulse stream
depends on the values of R1, R2
AND C

36. The 555 Timer IC being
-easy to use,
-low price,
-and good stability
is used widely in many applications.
Some of which we are going to show
you now, namely:
1. Blinking LED lights
2. Police Car Siren
3. Light Detector
4. Mosquito Repellant
5. Railway Lights
APPLICATIONS OF 555
-The 555 timer is used to blink an
array of LEDs’.
- The timer is used in ASTABLE mode
which gives us pulsed output.
-According to the above formula the
frequency of the blink is
approximately 2.2Hz.
-The frequency can be changed by
either changing the value of
resistance or the capacitor.
BLINKING LED LIGHTS

37. S R Q
0 0 NO CHANGE
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 FORBIDDEN
RESTRICTED
SR FEED BACK:-
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

38. ELECTRONIC TOY PIANO BY USING 555 TIMER CIRCUIT
A simple electronic toy piano can be easily constructed using the popular 555
timer IC. 555 Timer can be easily wired as Astable, Monostable or Bistable
multivibrator.
We all know that Sound is a Mechanical Wave as it is produced by to and fro
movement of particles of the medium. Displacement of particles are in the
same direction as propagation of sound waves, so sound is a Longitudinal
Wave. The to and fro motion of particles in the medium creates compression
(high pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure) in the medium, so sound is a
Pressure Wave.
A tone is a sound which is produced by a regular vibration. So it has only one
frequency even though intensity/amplitude can vary. A Loudspeaker is an
electronic transducer which converts electric signals to pressure variations to
make the sensation of sound. To make this diaphragm of the loudspeaker will
vibrate according to the frequency and amplitude of electric signals. Audible
frequency range of humans is from 20Hz to 20KHz, so we are going to
generate frequencies in this range using 555 timer and feed it to the
loudspeaker.
TOY PIANO CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
DIAGRAM:-

39. CIRCUIT COMPONENTS:-
555 Timer IC
6 Resistors- R1 to R6
Potentiometer – RV1
Capacitor – C1 and C2
Speaker of capacity 8 ohms
TOY PIANO CIRCUIT DESIGN:-
The 555 IC is a timer IC that produces frequency. 555 timer IC is operated in
astable multivibrator mode. The supply voltage VCC is 6V. Six 1k resistors
are connected in series. Second and sixth pins are shorted to allow
retriggering of 555 timer IC after every timing cycle. These two pins are
grounded through a capacitor. Fourth pin is reset pin it is shorted with
eighth pin i.e. VCC to avoid sudden resets. Seventh pin is discharge pin. It is
connected to series resistors through a variable resistor. Output is taken
from third pin. The obtained frequency is applied to the 8 ohms speaker
through a 10 microfarad capacitor.
HOW TO OPERATE TOY PIANO:-
Initially Power the circuit. Now press the first button from right. It produces
a tone with high pitch. Now press the second button it’s pitch is slightly
lower than the first button. Now press the next button. Likewise, press all
the buttons in order to listen the tones produced by them. This is similar to
tones produced by a piano. At a time only one button can be pressed

40. APPLICATIONS OF TOY ORGAN CIRCUIT:-
• It is used to produce different types of tones and sounds by changing the
resistor values.
• We can use it as a best birthday gift for the kids.
• We can also use this circuit as a Machine gun by changing the resistor and
capacitor values

41. DC MOTOR CONTROLLER BY USING PWM:-
ABSTRACT:-
In this circuit, the DC motor is operated by a 555 integrated circuit. The IC 555
in this circuit is being operated in Astable mode. In this mode, the circuit can
be used as a pulse width modulator with a few small adjustments to the
circuit. The frequency of operation of the circuit is provided by the passive
parameters of resistances and capacitances attached to it. The resistance
between pin-7 and pin- 8, the resistance between pin-6 and pin-7 and the
capacitance between pin-2 and the ground govern the frequency of
operation and duty cycle of the IC 555 in Astable mode. The duty cycle is
governed by the resistor which is in between pin-6 and pin-7 of the IC 555
timer. So, by taking advantage of the circuits working, we can change the 555
Astable multivibrator into a pulse width modulator by using a variable
resistor instead of a constant resistor in between pin-6 and pin-7.
One of the best things about this circuit is that we can make it work as an
astable multivibrator with little hardware and by little cost which can save
both the cost involved in making it as well as the space on the printed circuit
board is saved. if we want a sophisticated pulse width modulator which
works more accurately and which can have more adjusting capabilities, then
it is better to use a microcontroller based pulse width modulator than the
one which we are using now. However, the circuit or the application for
which we are using a pulse width modulator is not so sensitive and hence
does not demand so much of accuracy. In such a case, the circuit which we
are using with a bare IC 555 is better as it saves our monetary as well as
space resources in building the circuit. The duty cycle of the circuit can be
changed by changing the resistance between pin-7 and pin-6. If we increase
the duty cycle, the speed of the motor increases and if we decrease the duty
cycle, the speed of the motor decreases

42. PWM TECHNIQUE
GOAL “To explain PULSE WIDTH MODULATION technique
in brief.”
Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) Basics
There are many forms of modulation used for communicating information.
When a high frequency signal has amplitude varied in response to a lower
frequency signal we have AM (amplitude modulation). When the signal
frequency is varied in response to the modulating signal we have FM
(frequency modulation. These signals are used for radio modulation
because the high frequency carrier signal is needs for efficient radiation of
the signal. When communication by pulses was introduced, the amplitude,
frequency and pulse width become possible modulation options. In many
power electronic converters where the output voltage can be one of two
values the only option is modulation of average conduction time.

43. LINEAR MODULATION :-
The simplest modulation to interpret is where the average ON time of the
pulses varies proportionally with the modulating signal. The advantage of
linear processing for this application lies in the ease of de-modulation. The
modulating signal can be recovered from the PWM by low pass filtering. For
a single low frequency sine wave as modulating signal modulating the width
of a fixed frequency (fs) pulse train the spectra is as shown in Fig. Clearly a
low pass filter can extract the modulating component fm.

44. SAWTOOTH PWM:-
The simplest analog form of generating fixed frequency PWM is by comparison
with a linear slope waveform such as a saw tooth. As seen in Fig the output
signal goes high when the sine wave is higher than the saw tooth. This is
implemented using a comparator whose output voltage goes to logic HIGH when
ne input is greater than the other. Other signals with straight edges can be used
for modulation a rising ramp carrier will generate PWM with Trailing Edge
Modulation.
It is easier to have an integrator with a reset to generate the ramp in Fig but the
modulation is inferior to double edge modulation. Fig. Trailing Edge Modulation

45. REGULAR SAMPLED PWM :-
The scheme illustrated above generates a switching edge at the instant of
crossing of the sine wave and the triangle. This is an easy scheme to
implement using analog electronics but suffers the imprecision and drift of
all analog computation as well as having difficulties of generating multiple
edges when the signal has even a small added noise. Many modulators are
now implemented digitally but there is difficulty is computing the precise
intercept of the modulating wave and the carrier. Regular sampled PWM
makes the width of the pulse proportional to the value of the modulating
signal at the beginning of the carrier period. In Fig 1.5 the intercept of the
sample values with the triangle determine the edges of the Pulses. For a saw
tooth wave of frequency fs the samples are at 2fs.
There are many ways to generate a Pulse Width Modulated signal other than
fixed frequency sine sawtooth. For three phase systems the modulation of a
Voltage Source Inverter can generate a PWM signal for each phase leg by
comparison of the desired output voltage waveform for each phase with the
same sawtooth. One alternative which is easier to implement in a computer
and gives a larger modulation depth is using space vector modulation

46. MODULATION DEPTH:-
For a single phase inverter modulatedby a sine-sawtooth
comparison, if we compare a sine wave of magnitude from -2 to +2
with a triangle from -1 to +1 the linearrelation between the input
signal and the average output signal will be lost. Once the sine wave
reaches the peak of the transgle the pulses will be of maximum
width and the modulation willthen saturate. The Modulationdepth
is the ratio of the current signal to the case when saturationis just
starting. Thus sine wave of peak 1.2 compared with a triangle with
peak 2.0 will have a modulationdepthof m=0.6.

47. THEORY:-
COMPONENTS USED:-
BATTERY
CAPACITOR
VARIABLE REGULATOR
IC 555 TIMER
RESISTOR
MOTOR
DIODE
MOSEFET
WIRE
DC MOTOR
DC Motor is a Machine which converts
Electrical energy into Mechanical
energy. .
It takes Electrical energy as input and
produces Mechanical rotations of the
MOTOR shaft. .
DC Motors are widely used in many
industrial applications and in day to
day life.

48. ADVANTAGES
There various advantages are:
PWM technique enables greater efficiency of DC
Motor.
PWM technique improves speed control and
reduces power loss.
Internal Motor resistance can be easily overcome.
The pulses reach full supply voltage which in turn
produces more Torque.
DISADVANTAGES
Increased Complexity.
Speed obtained is less than the specified speed due
to losses.
Speed remains limited.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

49. “To explain working of the pwm circuit.”
BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM :-
As shown in block diagram there are mainly three blocks: Astable Multivibrator,
Monostable Multivibrator and Driving Circuit.

50. The Basic Blocks are explainedbelow:
Astable Multivibrator: This block produce square pulses of same
frequency according to time constant RC. These pulses are fed to next block as
triggering pulses.
• Monostable Multivibrator:This block produces square pulses of variable
frequencies. The frequency of output pulse can be varied by changing the value
of resistor shown in figure. These pulses are fed to the driving circuit.
Driving Circuit: This block provides power required to drive the motor. As the
frequency of output pulses of Monostable multivibrator changes, the average
voltage supplied to motor changes. Hence, the speed of motor changes
CONCLUSION
From the project work, following points can be concluded.
It fulfils all the requirements for its application.
The motor responds to the average value of the pulses and not to the
individual pulses as the chopper works at high frequency. Changing the
duty-cycle of the pulse by changing the speed of regulator changes the
average voltage level.
It is possible to improve overall performance of the motor speed.

51. REMOTE CONTROL CAR
ABSTRACT:-
Simple remote control cars commonly sold as toys can provide a viable starting
platform for the development of low-cost intelligent Unmanned Ground
Vehicles (UGVs) for the study of robot collectives. Remote control car is often
a radio control device, cable between control and vehicle, or an infrared
controller. Remote control are basically of two types one which is wired and
the other one is wireless. Wireless consists of receiving and detecting sensors.
Remote control can easily control the movements. The history of remote
control begins in the late 1960’s where a British company produces
commercially viable RC cars with the help of nitro gases. Later in 1970’s
Japanese firm produced electrical cars which are suitable for remote control.
Remote control car includes the entities such as Mechanical elements such as
wheels, Sensors such as IR sensors, proximity sensors, Motors, Driving
mechanisms like pulleys, chains, Power supply unit, Electronic unit which
includes circuits, Control unit which as microprocessors.

52. INTRODUCTION :-
A remote control vehicle is defined as any vehicle that is remotely controlled
by a means that does not restrict its motion with an origin external to the
device. This is often a radio control device, cable between control and
vehicle, or an infrared controller. A remote control vehicle or RCV differs
from a robot in that the RCV is always controlled by a human and takes no
positive action autonomously. Remote control car includes the entities such
as Mechanical elements such as wheels, Sensors such as IR sensors, proximity
sensors, Motors, Driving mechanisms like pulleys, chains, Power supply unit,
Electronic unit which includes circuits, Control unit which as microprocessors
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:-
DC Motors (500rpm)
DPDT switches
3- core shield wire
Battery (9V)
Plastic box (chassis)
Connecting wires and battery
caps
Wheels (50mm diameter)
Remote control box.
Caster Wheel

53. PROCEDURE
Solder the ribbon wire strip with the
each motors.
Do it for two motors.
Place the motors in the chasis
Tighten the motors with the two in
tape.
Motor Is Placed In The Chasis
Now, attach each wheels with the
motors.
Tighten the wheels with the motor
Place the wire as given in the
diagram.
Motors Tighten With The Chasis
Now Check Whether The All The
Soldered Wires With The Motors Are
Working.
All The two Motors Should Work
Properly.

54. PROCEDURE:-
Now Give The Connections For The Dpdt
Switch.
Two Dpdt Switches Are Enough For The
Wired Rc Car Project.
.
Here I Used Two Dpdt Swiches
connections for the two dpdt switches
are shown in the diagram
give the connections as per the
connections in the diagram.
the connection is that the left side
motors are for one switch.
and the right side t motors in the car
are for another switches.
this is how the connections are there in
the diagram.

55. PROCEDURE:-
And Connect The Two Positive Ends Of
The Dpdt Switches
And Also Connect Two Negative Ends
Of The Dpdt Switches.
And Give These Ends To The Battery.
The Middle Two Pins In Both The Dpdt
Switch Are For The Battery
Connections.
Give The Wire Connections As Shown In
The Diagram For The Box.
Place The Wires In The Box Through
The Specified Hole.
Now Connect The Wires With Battery.
Now Check The Wired Remote
Controlled Car Is Working According To
The Following Instructions.
Now check whether car working
properly,whether it moves left, right
,front back and rotate 360 degree
towards left and right side.
If Wired Remote Controlled Car
Follows This Instructions Then
theWired Rc Car is perfect.

56. WORKING PROCEDURE -
The motors are fixed to the chassis body and the tiers are fitted to the motor
shafts. The 9V battery is connected to the center terminals of both DPDT
switches. RIGHT SIDE DPDT SWITCH: Connect the right side motors to the top
terminals of right side DPDT switch. Connect it normally (+ ve and - ve ) so
that the two motors on right side rotates clockwise when the switch is
pressed to top position. Just cross the connections of the top terminals to the
bottom terminals using two wires, so that your right side motors rotate anti-
clockwise when the switch is pressed to bottom position. LEFT SIDE DPDT
SWITCH: Connect the left side motors to the top terminals of left side DPDT
switch. Connect it inverted (-ve and +ve ) so that the two motors on left side
rotates anti-clockwise when the switch is pressed to top position. Just cross
the connections of the top terminals to the bottom terminals using two
wires, so that your left side motors rotate clockwise when the switch is
pressed to bottom position. Both the batteries are connected in opposite
directions to complete the circuit. The DPDT switches help in changing in
direction of current in both ways. This helps in motion in all directions. For
motion in one direction the current should flow in same direction in all four
motors for turning of car in any one direction-current should flow in only two
of the motors on the same side. Now the car is ready for the movement.

57. MOVEMENT LEFT DPDT SWITCH RIGHT DPDT SWITCH
FORWARD TOP TOP
REVERSE BOTTOM BOTTOM
LEFT ------ TOP
RIGHT TOP ---
3600 LEFT BOTTOM TOP
3600 RIGHT TOP BOTTOM
DPDT SWITCH WORK:-

58. ADVANTAGES
Can control movements more comfortably.
Can reach remote parts.
Helps in imaging in places inhabitable to humans such as rovers
used in space research.
Smaller in size so it can be portable
Cheap in manufacturing remote controlling devices.
DISADVANTAGES
Works using battery which has to be regularly replaced.
Has distance limit in controlling devices.
Disturbing wires with the danger to get caught.
Complicated circuit which may get cut due to lose connections.
Motors will not run at the same specified speed after more
usage, which as to be replaced.

59. APPLICATIONS
Remote controlled vehicles are used to clear explosives as bomb
disposal.
Used in radiological survey.
They are used as quad copter for aerial photography.
RC car is used in road side bomb sweeper.
Can be used in movie making.
Used in RC water auger
Used in remote control police vehicle.
Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses including hazardous
environments, working in the Deep Ocean, and space exploration. Remote
control car is used by police to detect bombs, or some chemicals, etc- It
detects chemicals with its high powered sensors. The majority of the probes
to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles.
Remote control cars are used by many police and military department
bomb-squads to defuse or detonate explosives. Instead of renting expensive
life-sized aircraft for aerial scenes in movie making, we can adopt the
application of remote control vehicles in movie making. We can use RC
water auger in situations where involving boat-borne drug by smugglers

60. CONCLUSION:-
We analyze successfully the working of DPDT switches.
We got the idea of practical circuit connections.
We conclude that addition of extra motors will help in gaining more
speed significantly.
As per calculations theoretical velocity was found to be 5.23 m/s while
the actual velocity we got was 1.2 m/s which was a practically a good
result.
77.16% of velocity is lost in friction.
If we rotate the motor which are connected in series, the other motor
also rotates in same direction due to induced current.
All the motors do not run at the same specified speed (5oo rpm).
Increase in the weight of the car will decrease the speed of the car.

61. CONCLUSION ON PROJECT REPOERT
Here after seven days of workshop we had made this
project report on basis of ours knowledge , learning &
skills. We enjoy the learning of “BASIC ROBOTICS”.Weget
such oppurtunityto gather knowledge and we did our best
to understand it and learn the facts rather than by
hearting the facts . we get the actuall knowledge through
this workshop. We get practical knowledge also. We all
toghetherhad try to made all circuit and the RC CAR, and
our efforts give us success in completing all the circuits. We
are very much thankfull to mywbut team for proper
guidence and help.Its great workshop for the growing
enginners like us. And glad to be part of this workshop.