The diversity of organizations in society depends on the both the number of organizational forms and the distribution of organizations over forms".
This is a dynamic process, with new forms being created, some orgs changing into other forms, and some forms going away. Organizations are created and disbanded or merged. organization that cannot change strategy and structure as quickly as their environments can change.
Dimaggio and powell 1983 - the iron cage revisited - institutional isomorphis...Yassin Boullauazan
What makes organizations so similar? We contend that the engine of rationalization and bureaucratization has moved from the competitive marketplace to the state and the professions. Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises: rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to change them. We describe three isomorphic processes-coercive, mimetic, and normative-leading to this outcome. We then specify hypotheses about the impact of resource centralization and dependency, goal ambiguity and technical uncertainty, and professionalization and structuration on isomorphic change. Finally, we suggest implications for theories of organizations and social change
Amy hillman, michael withers, and brian collins(2009) resource dependence the...Yassin Boullauazan
Thirty years have passed since Pfeffer and Salancik’s seminal work on resource dependence theory (RDT). During this time RDT has been applied broadly across the research domain to explain how organizations reduce environmental interdependence and uncertainty. In this review, the authors assess the conceptual development, empirical research, and application of RDT. They structure their review around the five options that Pfeffer and Salancik propose firms can enact to minimize environmental dependences: (a) mergers/vertical integration, (b) joint ventures and other interorganizational relationships, (c) boards of directors, (d) political action, and (e) executive succession.The authors summarize past work, synthesize contemporary thought, and propose future research directions.
Hillman, A. J., Withers, M. C., & Collins, B. J. (2009). Resource dependence theory: A review. Journal of management, 35(6), 1404-1427.
Human Resource Management Model
Purpose of Human Resource Management Model
Harvard Model
Matching Model
Guest Model
Dave Ulrich Model
Storey Model
Best practice model
Best fit Model
Bath People and Performance Model
Dimaggio and powell 1983 - the iron cage revisited - institutional isomorphis...Yassin Boullauazan
What makes organizations so similar? We contend that the engine of rationalization and bureaucratization has moved from the competitive marketplace to the state and the professions. Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises: rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to change them. We describe three isomorphic processes-coercive, mimetic, and normative-leading to this outcome. We then specify hypotheses about the impact of resource centralization and dependency, goal ambiguity and technical uncertainty, and professionalization and structuration on isomorphic change. Finally, we suggest implications for theories of organizations and social change
Amy hillman, michael withers, and brian collins(2009) resource dependence the...Yassin Boullauazan
Thirty years have passed since Pfeffer and Salancik’s seminal work on resource dependence theory (RDT). During this time RDT has been applied broadly across the research domain to explain how organizations reduce environmental interdependence and uncertainty. In this review, the authors assess the conceptual development, empirical research, and application of RDT. They structure their review around the five options that Pfeffer and Salancik propose firms can enact to minimize environmental dependences: (a) mergers/vertical integration, (b) joint ventures and other interorganizational relationships, (c) boards of directors, (d) political action, and (e) executive succession.The authors summarize past work, synthesize contemporary thought, and propose future research directions.
Hillman, A. J., Withers, M. C., & Collins, B. J. (2009). Resource dependence theory: A review. Journal of management, 35(6), 1404-1427.
Human Resource Management Model
Purpose of Human Resource Management Model
Harvard Model
Matching Model
Guest Model
Dave Ulrich Model
Storey Model
Best practice model
Best fit Model
Bath People and Performance Model
This is a powerpoint showing Malthusian theory of population and the Demographic Transition Model
This video adds a lot to the lesson as a whole
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAkW_i0bDpQ&feature=em-subs_digest
There are two laws of thermodynamics. On the other hand in our universe sun is the source of energy. Green plants are the only producer. Plants make their own food by sunlight with the help of water and carbon dioxide. Other animals get energy by consuming green plants, plant products and other animals. Hence the energy is cycle. So the ecosystem proves the two laws of thermodynamics.
The full Crash Course Ecology Series- now in Note-Form! I've added my own little 'twists' on the notes, and have added some pictures to make studying easier.
This PowerPoint was one very small part of my Ecology Interactions Unit from the website http://sciencepowerpoint.com/index.html .This unit includes a 3 part 2000+ Slide PowerPoint loaded with activities, project ideas, critical class notes (red slides), review opportunities, challenge questions with answers, 3 PowerPoint review games (125 slides each) and much more. A bundled homework package and detailed unit notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow.
Areas of Focus within The Ecology Interactions Unit: Levels of Biological Organization (Ecology), Parts of the Biosphere, Habitat, Ecological Niche, Types of Competition, Competitive Exclusion Theory, Animal Interactions, Food Webs, Predator Prey Relationships, Camouflage, Population Sampling, Abundance, Relative Abundance, Diversity, Mimicry, Batesian Mimicry, Mullerian Mimicry, Symbiosis, Parasitism, Mutualism, Commensalism, Plant and Animal Interactions, Coevolution, Animal Strategies to Eat Plants, Plant Defense Mechanisms, Exotic Species, Impacts of Invasive Exotic Species.
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thank you again and best wishes.
Sincerely,
Ryan Murphy M.Ed
www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
natural resources, introduction, ganga action plan,pollution,stake holders of forest, 3 rs,reduce,recycle,reuse,People ‘s participation in management of resources,
Importance of forests :- Chipko movement
done by rt vinay and his group
crpf public school 10 class
Leyendo el texto completo, responda:
1) ¿Cuál es el problema que aborda la economía ecológica?
2) ¿Cuál es el asunto primario bajo el paradigma de administración de la economía ecológica?
Puede responder en inglés o español.
Entropy: A Join between Science and Mind-SocietyAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Entropy is join, intersection and interaction between natural science and human mind-society.
We proposed that if internal interactions exist in isolated systems, entropy decrease will be possible for this
system. Management in system is a typical internal interaction within the isolated system. The purpose of
management is to use regulating the internal interactions within the system, and to decrease the increasing
entropy spontaneously. We propose the principle of social civilization and the developing direction is: freedom
of thought, rule of action. Both combinations should be a peaceful revision and improvement of social rules and
laws. Different countries and nations, different religions and beliefs should coexist peacefully and compete
peacefully. The evolution of human society must be coevolution. Its foundation is the evolution of the human
heart and the human nature.
KEYWORDS: entropy, science, society, management, mind, evolution.
Define the environment in the context of businessLearn the dLinaCovington707
Define the environment in the context of business
Learn the difference between the general environment and the industry
Explain how PESTEL analysis is useful to organizations
Explain how five forces analysis is useful to organizations
Understand what strategic groups are
Chapter 3 Learning Objectives
3-1
Environment: Set of external conditions and forces that have the potential to influence the organization
General environment (macroenvironment): Overall trends and events in a society such as - social trends, technological trends, demographics, and economic conditions
Industry (competitive environment): Consists of multiple organizations that collectively compete with one another by providing similar goods, services, or both
Environment
3-2
The environment provides resources that an organization needs in order to create goods and services
The environment is a source of opportunities and threats for an organization
Opportunities: Events and trends that create chances to improve an organization’s performance level
Threats: Events and trends that may undermine an organization’s performance
The environment shapes the various strategic decisions that executives make as they attempt to lead their organizations to success
Why Does the Environment Matter?
3-3
A tool that executives can rely upon, to organize factors within the general environment and identify how these factors influence industries and the firms within them
The Elements of the General Environment: PESTEL Analysis
3-4
4
PESTEL Analysis
5
Five forces analysis: Technique for understanding an industry, by examining the interactions among:
Competitors in an industry
Potential new entrants to the industry
Substitutes for the industry’s offerings
Suppliers to the industry
Industry’s buyers
Purpose of the analysis is to identify how much profit potential exists in an industry
Five Forces Analysis
3-6
Porter’s Five Forces
3-7
7
Competitors
Intense Rivalry
9
Industry Concentration
10
Potential Entrants
Economics of scale
Capital requirements
Access to distribution channels
Government policy
Differentiation
Switching costs
Expected retaliation
Cost advantages independent of size
Barriers to Entry
12
Suppliers
Suppliers
14
Buyers
Buyers
16
Substitutes
Substitutes
18
It assumes that competition is a zero sum game - the amount of profit potential in an industry is fixed
Collaboration is a possibility that five forces analysis tends to downplay
Doesn’t explain variation in performance within an industry
Limitations of Five Forces Analysis
3-19
19
Strategic groups: Consist of a set of industry competitors, that have similar characteristics to each other but differ in important ways from the members of other groups
Narrows the focus by centering on subsets of the competitors, whose strategies are similar to each other
The analysis of the strategic groups in an industry can offer important insights to executives
Cl ...
Middle Class environmentalism.pptxMiddle Class Radicalism & .docxARIV4
Middle Class environmentalism.pptx
Middle Class Radicalism & Environmentalism
What Kind of environmentalist are you?
http://thegreenists.com/its-complicated/what-kind-of-environmentalist-are-you/7562
Questions
Are those who join environmental associations particularly aware of the problems?
Is it just about awareness? Are those who are more aware of environmental problems more likely to participate in environmental organizations?
What is the difference between environmentalists and non-environmentalists?
Is it just about awareness? Are those who are more aware of environmental problems more likely to participate in environmental organizations?
3
Research
Questionnaire distributed to 3 groups.
1) Environmentalists 2)Industrialists (Business & Engineering 3) General Public
On some items, environmentalists and general public both agreed on damage to environment (Environmentalists agreement was stronger)
Awareness of environmental dangers can only account in part for membership in environmental groups
How do we then
explain participation in
Environmental groups?
Need to examine beliefs about environment in the context of wider systems of belief & action (We see bigger difference between environmentalists and others)
Environmentalists see environmental dangers to be much more serious.
Environmentalists: More likely to lack confidence in and even show hostility toward science and technology
Environmentalists: More opposed to institutions of industrial society
Belief Systems (Environmentalists)
Low support for material values (Maintaining high rate of economic growth, maintaining stable economy)
High support for post-material values (Progressing toward less impersonal, more humane society; Progressing toward a society where ideas are more important than money)
Environmentalists have a different worldview, meaning system, and value system than non-environmentalists.
Environmentalists Vs. General Public
What differentiates environmentalists from general public is not awareness of environmental dangers but use to which they put their environmental beliefs.
Universal trump cards: Time, money, God, Nature
Laws of nature are used to sanction moral codes (Hurricane Katrina happened b/c of abortion)
Environment is trump card used by environmentalists
Those on Left: Less confidence in science, higher scores on anti-industrial society scale, higher post-material scores, more opposed to economic individualism, more likely to rate environmental dangers as more serious.
Environmental Movement
Environmental movement: Vehicle for harnessing beliefs about environmental dangers to support attack on central values and beliefs of industrial capitalism -- the hegemony of economic goals and values. (Define good citizenship through consumerism)
In other words, Environmental movement is a way of acting out beliefs. Belief is that the world and society is not just about money, individualism, etc. A belief system that feels the environment is in seri ...
Student ID No. 1619853Contemporary Issues in International.docxcpatriciarpatricia
Student ID No. 1619853
Contemporary Issues in International Management (MOD004160)
List (A) - The Population Ecology of Organisations
Introduction
The journal paper of Hannan and Freeman (1977) looks at the relationship between organisations and the environment and how organisations emerge, grow and die over a long period of time. They apply the population ecology theories to the population of organisations, which they use as their level of analysis, as opposed to the organisation or community level.
Their research is debating that the selection model is favoured over the adaption model, which at the time of their research, the majority of literature was focussed on the adaption model. They favour the selection model due to the structural inertia limiting the organisations ability to adapt to changing environments. They mention the inertial pressures that arise from both internal structural arrangements and environmental constraints and argue that in order to deal with the various inertial pressures the adaption perspective must be supplemented with a selection orientation (pp. 933).
Two broad issues are considered, the first regarding the unit of analyses where they argue for an explicit focus on populations of organisations, rather than the view of a single organisation and the environment. The second is the application of population ecology models to the study of human social organisations.
All the above they hope to answer their research question ‘why are there so many kinds of organisations?’
Literature Review
The fundamental part of their research started with Hawley’s (1950, 1968) statement on human ecology, they state that Hawley’s perspective serves a useful starting point for population ecology theories when extended to include competition models and niche theory.
When reviewing competition theory they continue to focus on the process of selection, in that isomorphism happens because nonoptimal forms are selected out of a community of organisations (pp.939) and that competition is a mechanism for producing isomorphism (pp.940). They use the literature of Hummon, Dorian, and Teuter (1975) and Blau and Scott (1962) to construct their ecological model of competition by stating the nature of the population growth process and to support their view that the rate of growth or decline in populations of organisations is due to environmental changes.
They represent this environmental change by using Hutchinson’s (1957) formulation model to show Levins (1962, 1968) theory of niche width.
Methodology
The paper is a conceptual paper and does not include any empirical research to support their theories. Throughout the paper there are several references to empirical research and at one point the authors expressed their frustration at the lack of empirical research available on rates of selection in populations of organisations (pp.959).
Rather than start from the beginning, Hannan and Freeman (1977) chose to adopt the methodology of Hawley.
11Systems TheoryBRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALL.docxmoggdede
11
Systems Theory
BRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALLEN
3
Biopsychosocial assessment and the develop-ment of appropriate intervention strategies for
a particular client require consideration of the indi-
vidual in relation to a larger social context. To
accomplish this, we use principles and concepts
derived from systems theory. Systems theory is a
way of elaborating increasingly complex systems
across a continuum that encompasses the person-in-
environment (Anderson, Carter, & Lowe, 1999).
Systems theory also enables us to understand the
components and dynamics of client systems in order
to interpret problems and develop balanced inter-
vention strategies, with the goal of enhancing the
“goodness of fit” between individuals and their
environments. Systems theory does not specify par-
ticular theoretical frameworks for understanding
problems, and it does not direct the social worker to
specific intervention strategies. Rather, it serves as
an organizing conceptual framework or metatheory
for understanding (Meyer, 1983).
As a profession, social work has struggled to
identify an organizing framework for practice that
captures the nature of what we do. Many have iden-
tified systems theory as that organizing framework
(Goldstein, 1990; Hearn, 1958; Meyer, 1976, 1983;
Siporin, 1980). However, because of the complex
nature of the clinical enterprise, others have chal-
lenged the suitability of systems theory as an orga-
nizing framework for clinical practice (Fook, Ryan,
& Hawkins, 1997; Wakefield, 1996a, 1996b).
The term system emerged from Émile Durkheim’s
early study of social systems (Robbins, Chatterjee,
& Canda, 2006), as well as from the work of
Talcott Parsons. However, within social work, sys-
tems thinking has been more heavily influenced by
the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy
and later adaptations by the social psychologist Uri
Bronfenbrenner, who examined human biological
systems within an ecological environment. With
its roots in von Bertalanffy’s systems theory and
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological environment, the
ecosys tems perspective provides a framework that
permits users to draw on theories from different dis-
ciplines in order to analyze the complex nature of
human interactions within a social environment.
RELEVANT HISTORY
Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972), as mentioned
above, is credited with being the originator of the
form of systems theory used in social work. Von
Bertalanffy, a theoretical biologist born and educated
in Austria, became dis satisfied with the way linear,
cause-and-effect theories explained growth and
change in living organisms. He felt that change might
occur because of the interac tions between the parts
of an organism, a point of view that represented a
dramatic change from the theories of his day.
Existing theories had tended to be reductionis t,
understanding the whole by breaking it into its parts.
Von Bertalanffy’s introduction of systems theory
changed that framework by looki ...
Similar to Population ecology theory postulates and lessons for strategic management (20)
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State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
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Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
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In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
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4. Definitions
Ecology involves interactions of living organisms and their
environments. Life sets ecology apart from the inanimate
physical sciences.
Population ecology is the discipline in ecology that deals with
the structure and dynamics (e.g. growth and decline) of
biological populations. The focus may be on a single population
in isolation, or one of a few interacting species.
According to Hannan and Freeman (1977) a population of
organizations is defined as "all the organizations within a
particular boundary that have a common form". Industry is the
closest counterpart in economics and strategy management
literature.
5.
In the late 1700s, Reverend Thomas Malthus’ in An Essay on
the Principle of Population argued that population increases
exponentially if unchecked whilst the food supply grows
only arithmetically; hence inevitable limitations of vital
resources would have demographic implications, leading to a
"struggle for existence".
Adam Smith, an 18th century political economist, in his The
Wealth of Nations, identified a regulating mechanism in free
markets, which he referred to as the "invisible hand", which
suggests that supplies and demand are the key determinants
of prices .
Charles Darwin was influenced by both Smith and Malthus,
and thus Darwin ‘continued the conversation’ on the
"struggle for existence" in nature. Darwin determined that as
population outgrew resources, "favorable variations would
tend to be preserved and unfavorable ones to be destroyed.
6.
7.
8. The principle of geometric growth:
In general exponential growth can apply to population ecology. The law is
The Malthusian law
Exponential Growth-this model :
Predicts the rate of growth, or decay, of any population where the per capita
rates of growth and death are constant over time.
*Births, deaths, emigration and immigration take place continuously
*For the growth of most biological populations
*Human populations grow exponentially when resources are
plentiful
The principle of cooperation:
Arises from the basic ecological premise that individuals can receive
increasing benefits, in terms of higher reproduction and/or survival (or
higher R), from increases in population density (Berryman 1999). For
example, a higher probability of finding a mate, obtaining food (group
hunting), or escaping enemies (group defense)
9. The principle of limiting factors:
populations can be affected by many feedback loops involving
many different species and physical factors. If all these
potential feedback processes were to operate
simultaneously, then the dynamics would usually be
extremely complex, or even chaotic
The principle of interacting species:
inter-specific interactions between predators and their prey can
create negative feedback between the two species, in the
sense that increases in prey numbers results in higher
predator numbers (through increased reproduction) and
this feeds back to reduce prey numbers (through increased
mortality).
The principle of competition:
It arises from the basic ecological premise that organisms have
problems acquiring resources, or become more vulnerable to
natural enemies, as their populations become larger, and
these results in lowered reproduction and/or survival.
10.
Inertia and Change: It implies that organizations that are both reliable
and accountable are those that can survive (favored by “natural
selection”). A negative by-product, however, of the need for reliability
and accountability is a high degree of inertia and a resistance to change.
Niche Theory: It distinguishes broadly between two types of
organizations: generalists and specialists. specialist organizations
maximize their exploitation of the environment and accept the risk of
experiencing a change in that environment, while generalist organizations
accept a lower level of exploitation in return for greater security.
Resource Partitioning: It develops the relationship between
generalists and specialist organizations. This model includes predictions
about the founding and mortality rates of both specialists and generalists
as a function of market concentration.
Density Dependence: It predicts that the rates of founding and the
rates of mortality are dependent on the number of organizations (density)
in the market. This density dependency sub-theory seemed rather
intuitive and related to Smith concepts of “supply and demand”.
11.
Liability of newness. Here, the risk of failure is high initially but
declines as the organization ages environmental change
experienced by an organization, and if the risk of failure increases
with the cumulative environmental change, then the probability of
failure will increase with age if environmental change is
uncontrolled.
Liability of adolescence. The risk of mortality will be low at first as
the organization is buffered from failure due to support by
external constituents and initial endowments. But when these
initial resources become depleted, the mortality hazard shoots up
and then declines following the liability of newness pattern
Liability of aging. Here, the risk of failure increases with
organizational age. This could be due to a liability of obsolescence (a
growing external mismatch with the environment).
12.
Structural inertia model advanced by Hannan and Freeman
(1984):
This theory agrees that an organization’s strategy is the “core competence” of
the organization, an enterprise’s internal pressure tends to prevent sharp
changes of present strategy, once the strategy is established,organizational
leaders would not like to deviate from it since it may destroy the original
organization system, disturb the connections of former interest-related
parties, and decrease the efficiency and effect of the organization.
Evolution of Organizational Forms: It holds the idea that 'long-run
changes in organizational diversity reflect the accumulated effects of
short-run differences in net mortality rates of populations facing limited
resource environments, Evolutionary theory means three things.
1. Organizations have descended from past organizations .
2. Big differences seen now have arisen gradually.
3. The processes of change are still around us and can be
examined experimentally.
13.
Dynamic and Comparative Analysis: "The diversity of
organizations in society depends on the both the number of organizational
forms and the distribution of organizations over forms".
This is a dynamic process, with new forms being created, some orgs
changing into other forms, and some forms going away. Organizations are
created and disbanded or merged. organization that cannot change
strategy and structure as quickly as their environments can change.
The Demography and Ecology of Organizations: is appropriate when
organizations are subject to strong inertial pressures and face changeable,
uncertain environments." membership, capital, and legitimacy.
1. demography of organizations, concerns the variations in vital rates
for organizational populations (founding rates, merger rates,
disbanding rates, etc.)
2. population ecology of organizations, tries to show how the vital
rates of one population are affected by other organizational
populations.
3. community ecology of organizations. This looks as interacting
communities of populations (like firms, labor unions, and
regulatory agencies)
14.
Organizational Age:
An organization can form an inherent institution and tradition in a longterm management and build a stable relationship with interest-related
parties. Aged” organizations will face more pressures as they change
the original strategies. So, they prefer to adjust their strategies
continuously in order to adapt to the changeable environment needs .
Population Thinking:
Ecological density as important factors influencing strategy change. They
think that the high-density industry can worsen the competition and
the fierce competition will enhance all enterprises’ strategy
differentiation (Hannan and Freeman, 1989).
15.
16.
17. a) Darwin’s evolutionism regards natural selection as the only engine
for biological evolution, neglecting the possibility of complex
system generating orders spontaneously. The evolvement of an
organization and its operational model is the result of natural
selection and self-organization (Min Luo, 2006). An introduction
of the complexity theory to complement the organizational
ecology-based strategy change theory is necessary.
Under this circumstance, strategy change behavior includes not
only transformation of enterprise’s resource capabilities but also
changes of organizational learning (Ancheng Pan, 2007)
b) The so-called “self-organize” refers to a process in which things
become organized or ordered spontaneously. In other words, the
self-organized system organizes, survives, evolves, innovates, and
develops by itself without depending on external orders. It is a
process from disorder to order.
c) Macintosh and Maclean use the complexity theory to re-explain
the motives for corporate strategy change. Therefore, to introduce
the complexity theory into the research on strategy change theory
is a right theoretical complement.
18.
The concept of fitness is not clearly defined by the theory, its
insufficient to state that only organizations that the environment
determines as fit survive. A more meaningful and causal pattern
must be presented for a theory to be acceptable
19.
Most theoretical and empirical work in population ecology has
focused on explaining the striking similarity of the growth
trajectories of very different organizational populations, varying from
banks and breweries to labor unions and voluntary social service
organizations. The number of organizations in a population typically
grows slowly initially, and then increases rapidly to a peak. Once the
peak is reached, there is usually a sharp decline and occasionally
stabilization.
Density is a remote measure of the processes of legitimating and
competition. Legitimacy grows with density, at a decreasing rate,
while competition grows at an increasing rate. At low levels of
density, growth in numbers serves primarily to legitimize a
population's goals and chosen form. At high levels of density,
increases in density strengthen competition far more than
legitimation. The net effect shifts from legitimation at low density to
competition at high density. Therefore the relationship between
density and the founding rate has the form of an inverted-U.
20.
Market concentration has critical implications for entry and exit
rates (which are called founding and mortality rates in population
ecology, respectively), as well as profitability. It should be noted
that high market concentration and entry barriers often lead to
low entry rates and high mortality rates for disadvantageous
firms.
The debates between selection and adaptation theories are far
from over, although some reconciliation has been made (e.g.,
Baum and Singh, 1993; Usher and Evans, 1996). Debating whether
organizational action is the product of opportunistic choice or
environmental constraint is like debating whether a glass is half
empty or half full (Astley, 1985).
21. REFERENCES
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Failure." Administrative Science Quarterly 38: 51-73.
Astley, W. G. 1985. "The Two Ecologies: Population and Community Perspectives on Organizational Evolution."
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Astley, W.G. & Van de Ven, A.H. 1983. Central Perspectives and Debates in Organization Theory, Administrative Science
Quarterly, 28: 245-273
Baum JAC, Singh JV. 1994. Organizational niche overlap and the dynamics of organizational failure. American Journal of
Sociology 100: 346-380.
Baum, Joel A. C. and Stephen J. Mezias. 1992. "Localized Competition and Organizational Failure in the Manhattan hotel
Industry, 1898-1990." Administrative Science Quarterly 37:580-604.
Boone. C., DeBrabander, B., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. 1996. CEO locus of control and small firm performance: An integrative
framework and empirical test. Journal of Management Studies,