Leyendo el texto completo, responda:
1) ¿Cuál es el problema que aborda la economía ecológica?
2) ¿Cuál es el asunto primario bajo el paradigma de administración de la economía ecológica?
Puede responder en inglés o español.
Ecological economics aims to address the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems over time and space. It recognizes that issues like deforestation, pollution, and climate change are driven by economic decisions but traditional economics has overlooked ecosystems and sustainability. Ecological economics seeks true economic efficiency by incorporating all costs, including those related to resource depletion and environmental damage, into prices. It also acknowledges that resources and ecosystems are the foundation of the economy and that the economy is ultimately bounded by and dependent on the planet.
The Story of Stuff is a 20-minute documentary that exposes the hidden environmental and social impacts of production and consumption patterns. It shows how the extraction, sale, use, and disposal of consumer goods affects communities at home and abroad. The documentary aims to teach viewers about these connections in order to foster more sustainable and just consumption behaviors. The three pillars of sustainability are the environment, economy, and society. Ecological economics considers how economic activities like resource depletion and pollution impact the environment and society. It advocates for valuing natural capital and ecosystem services as well as alternative indicators to GDP to measure economic progress. Economic incentives and disincentives like taxes, subsidies, and market mechanisms can help internalize environmental and social costs to
An efficient allocation of resources that adequately accounts for natural capital. Traditional economics (including environmental economics - defined as the application of traditional economics to environmental problems) has focused on a third of these problems (efficient allocation) and therefore has not fully addressed the issue of sustainable development.
The document discusses the economics of environmental sustainability and sustainable development. It defines economics and the linkages between the economy and the environment. It discusses how production and consumption use resources and generate residuals, affecting the environment. The goal of environmental sustainability is to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
1. Economic growth is an increase in a country's ability to produce goods and services over time.
2. Benefits of economic growth include rising living standards, more jobs, increased capital investment, and more tax revenue for the government to spend on public services.
3. However, economic growth also places pressure on the environment as natural resources are used up in production and pollution increases. Common types of environmental degradation caused by economic growth include air, water, soil, and noise pollution.
The document discusses the relationship between the environment and sustainable economic development. It defines environment and explains how it is interdependent with development. Sustainable development is defined as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. While economic growth benefits standards of living, it has also degraded ecosystems. Maintaining balance requires policy interventions like promoting cleaner technologies, efficient resource use, and international cooperation. Development and environment impact each other, so sustainable development is needed.
Environmental implications of Kuznet curveswtnspicyaqua
The document discusses the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. It begins by providing background on how environmental issues came to be more widely debated in the 1980s. This led to a shift from focusing on natural resource availability to the environment's ability to absorb waste. The Brundtland Report in 1987 embraced economic growth as a way to reduce poverty and environmental degradation. The relationship between economic growth and the environment then came under increased scrutiny. In the 1990s, the empirical literature on this link "exploded" as many studies tested the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that various indicators of environmental degradation initially increase with economic growth but then improve after a certain income threshold is reached, similar to Kuznets' original curve
Ecological economics aims to address the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems over time and space. It recognizes that issues like deforestation, pollution, and climate change are driven by economic decisions but traditional economics has overlooked ecosystems and sustainability. Ecological economics seeks true economic efficiency by incorporating all costs, including those related to resource depletion and environmental damage, into prices. It also acknowledges that resources and ecosystems are the foundation of the economy and that the economy is ultimately bounded by and dependent on the planet.
The Story of Stuff is a 20-minute documentary that exposes the hidden environmental and social impacts of production and consumption patterns. It shows how the extraction, sale, use, and disposal of consumer goods affects communities at home and abroad. The documentary aims to teach viewers about these connections in order to foster more sustainable and just consumption behaviors. The three pillars of sustainability are the environment, economy, and society. Ecological economics considers how economic activities like resource depletion and pollution impact the environment and society. It advocates for valuing natural capital and ecosystem services as well as alternative indicators to GDP to measure economic progress. Economic incentives and disincentives like taxes, subsidies, and market mechanisms can help internalize environmental and social costs to
An efficient allocation of resources that adequately accounts for natural capital. Traditional economics (including environmental economics - defined as the application of traditional economics to environmental problems) has focused on a third of these problems (efficient allocation) and therefore has not fully addressed the issue of sustainable development.
The document discusses the economics of environmental sustainability and sustainable development. It defines economics and the linkages between the economy and the environment. It discusses how production and consumption use resources and generate residuals, affecting the environment. The goal of environmental sustainability is to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
1. Economic growth is an increase in a country's ability to produce goods and services over time.
2. Benefits of economic growth include rising living standards, more jobs, increased capital investment, and more tax revenue for the government to spend on public services.
3. However, economic growth also places pressure on the environment as natural resources are used up in production and pollution increases. Common types of environmental degradation caused by economic growth include air, water, soil, and noise pollution.
The document discusses the relationship between the environment and sustainable economic development. It defines environment and explains how it is interdependent with development. Sustainable development is defined as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. While economic growth benefits standards of living, it has also degraded ecosystems. Maintaining balance requires policy interventions like promoting cleaner technologies, efficient resource use, and international cooperation. Development and environment impact each other, so sustainable development is needed.
Environmental implications of Kuznet curveswtnspicyaqua
The document discusses the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. It begins by providing background on how environmental issues came to be more widely debated in the 1980s. This led to a shift from focusing on natural resource availability to the environment's ability to absorb waste. The Brundtland Report in 1987 embraced economic growth as a way to reduce poverty and environmental degradation. The relationship between economic growth and the environment then came under increased scrutiny. In the 1990s, the empirical literature on this link "exploded" as many studies tested the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that various indicators of environmental degradation initially increase with economic growth but then improve after a certain income threshold is reached, similar to Kuznets' original curve
Ecology Against Capitalism by Christopher PickeringRatbag Media
The document argues that capitalism is incompatible with environmental sustainability for three main reasons. First, capitalism requires infinite economic growth and consumption within a finite environment. Second, capitalism prioritizes profits and private ownership over environmental planning and protection. Third, capitalism lacks mechanisms to correct unsustainable environmental practices and instead relies on endless expansion through the "treadmill of production." The only solution, according to the document, is a transition to socialism which organizes production democratically according to human and environmental needs rather than profit.
This series of blog has been prepared by the author (Shahadat Hossain Shaki) for the partial
fulfilment of his master’s program course ―Key Debates in Environmental Governance‖, which has been supervised by Prof. Dr. Maria Kaika.
Blog Link: http://environmentalgovernance.wordpress.com/author/shshakil/
Author can be contacted for further query and suggestions at : shshakil.buet@gmail.com
This is a presentation about capitalism; how it works and how it affects nature, being the principal destructor of our planet.
This work also presents ideas to stop contributing to the actual climate crisis.
***The material presented exposes the original ideas of the author***
YOUR COLOUR IS GREEN - PAPER OF LUISA VINCIGUERRA ITALYLuisa Vinciguerra
WOMEN IN THE GREEN ECONOMY. ROLE AND PROMOTION STRATEGIES OF INNER WHEEL, is the title of the Paper of Luisa Vinciguerra, connected with the Power Point Presentation.
1. The document discusses the need to move away from unlimited economic growth models and towards more sustainable models of development with decreased consumption. Continued economic growth is putting unsustainable stress on the planet's ecosystems.
2. It argues that economic degrowth, involving reduced consumption and working hours, is necessary to stabilize the climate and prevent irreparable environmental damage. Emerging economies need to promote more sustainable economic models to serve as an example for other countries.
3. Public policies are needed to incentivize more sustainable behaviors around housing, transportation, food, and consumption. Taxing unsustainable goods and services can encourage changes to new social standards based on planetary boundaries and perennial values.
Watershed Conference - "The value nature vs the nature of value" - 2006Steve McKinney
The document discusses environmental economics and the valuation of natural systems using the concept of ecological services value (ESV). It defines key terms like total economic value and describes how ESV can provide a common metric to evaluate the stormwater impacts of development decisions. The research aims to develop a methodology and decision tool to calculate ESV based on stormwater modeling. Examples applying the ESV approach to residential and commercial development sites are provided. The tool is intended to help decision-makers compare economic and environmental factors.
Presentation prepared for a series of lectures on Environmentalism for PS 240 introduction to Political Theory at the University of Kentucky, Spring 2007. Dr. Christopher S. Rice, Instructor.
Ecological economics differs from mainstream economics in several key ways:
1) It views the economy as a subsystem of larger ecological systems, not separate from the environment.
2) It focuses on the throughput of resources and adheres to the laws of thermodynamics, concerned with resource depletion and waste assimilation.
3) It considers the scale of the economy relative to ecosystems and believes uneconomic growth can occur when scale becomes too large.
The document discusses environmental problems caused by human activities and how to achieve environmental sustainability. It covers topics like our growing ecological footprints; causes of environmental problems like population growth, poverty, and failure to include environmental costs; different views on sustainability; and scientific principles like reliance on solar energy, biodiversity, population control, and nutrient cycling.
Environmental economics studies the economic impact of environmental policies and how climate changes can affect the economy. The field helps design appropriate policies and analyze their effects. For example, a policy to save the endangered bluefin tuna from overfishing would require investments in tuna population renewal, substitutes, and enforcement that could decrease revenues from tuna fishing but are necessary to prevent extinction and ensure future sustainability. Effective implementation is estimated to cost $5-7.5 billion over 5 years.
Sustainability Reading: Natural Capital and Ecosystem RightsSam Bleiberg
A short powerpoint on the carbon cycle, natural capital, and rights for ecosystems based on readings for the Pratt Sustainable Design Foundations Course.
1. The document discusses several perspectives on addressing climate change from various publications. It outlines 10 suggestions for policymakers from the book "Human Choice and Climate Change" including taking a holistic view and recognizing both environmental and institutional limits.
2. It also summarizes key points from other publications. One argues international climate mechanisms are cumbersome and insufficient. Another notes we disagree on climate change because we worry about different things. A third discusses defining climate change as a "wicked problem" with many potential solutions.
3. The document advocates for a pluralistic approach incorporating hierarchical, individualistic, and egalitarian forms of governance when addressing climate change. It promotes "many 10% solutions" rather than one single solution
This document provides an overview of the concepts of a green economy and poverty eradication. It defines a green economy as one that improves human well-being and social equity while reducing environmental risks. It then discusses green economists' views and provides definitions for aspects of a green economy such as renewable energy and clean transportation. The document also critiques some mainstream conceptions of the green economy and discusses how poverty is defined and approaches to reducing poverty through improving health, education, infrastructure, employment, and productivity. It concludes by comparing strategies in China, India, and Brazil and noting that a transition to a green economy could help reduce poverty and vulnerability over the long term.
Permaculture design I- intro, state of the world, ethics and principles 1-4Doug Crouch
This document discusses the principles and design of permaculture. Permaculture is defined as the harmonious integration of ecosystems and human systems to create self-sustaining landscapes. It aims to mimic natural patterns to build interconnected systems that are productive, efficient, and abundant. The key principles of permaculture design include observing natural relationships and patterns in nature, ensuring multiple functions for all design elements, and placing elements in zones based on their needs and how often they are used by people. Permaculture provides solutions for sustainably meeting human needs while protecting the environment.
The document discusses different theories and paradigms of environmentalism. It defines environmentalism as a social movement and body of thought concerned with limiting human impacts on the natural environment. It then outlines key aspects of environmentalism like awareness, knowledge, participation and capacity building. The document discusses the history of environmentalism from the industrial revolution to modern times. It also outlines different paradigms for understanding the relationship between environment, society and economy, including economic environmentalism, radical environmentalism, reform environmentalism and ecological modernization.
This document discusses environmental ethics and environmental costs. It defines environmental ethics as the moral relationship between humans and the environment. Environmental ethics considers that the earth and its creatures have intrinsic value and moral status. The document also defines environmental costs as costs that directly impact a company financially or costs to society and the environment that the company is not accountable for. It identifies internal costs like conventional, hidden, and contingent costs as well as external costs like environmental degradation and impacts on humans that cannot be compensated legally.
This document discusses environmental ethics and provides definitions of key concepts. It begins by stating that ethics are important for development and societies without ethical principles can experience moral decay. It then defines concepts like values, morals, environment, ecology, ecosystem, and different perspectives on environmental ethics like anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. The document examines environmental ethics as the application of ethical standards to human relationships with the environment and poses example ethical dilemmas. It explores expanding ethical consideration to include animals, communities, and nature. In closing, it recommends developing a holistic perspective that preserves ecological connections.
The document discusses various definitions and models of sustainable development. It defines sustainable development as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. It describes models such as the three pillars model focusing on economy, environment and society. Another model presented is the sustainability model depicting the interdependence of people and ecosystems. The document also discusses measures of sustainable development like the Gross National Happiness Index and different sustainability indicators.
The document is an agenda for a presentation on estimating the value of natural resources. It will include an overview of ecological economics, the global ecological footprint, methods for estimating ecosystem value, and an group activity to evaluate estimation methods with an example. It also discusses definitions and perceptions of sustainability, challenges related to population growth and resource use, and objectives of ecological economics around sustainable scale, efficient allocation, and just distribution.
Ecological economics and biodiversity conservationSaroj Upadhyay
definition of economics, types of economic systems, environmental impacts of traditional economic systems, Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), Ecological economics and its capitals, Conventional unsustainable vs Environmentally sustainable economic growth, Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity,Ecological Economics And Biodiversity Conservation
Ecology Against Capitalism by Christopher PickeringRatbag Media
The document argues that capitalism is incompatible with environmental sustainability for three main reasons. First, capitalism requires infinite economic growth and consumption within a finite environment. Second, capitalism prioritizes profits and private ownership over environmental planning and protection. Third, capitalism lacks mechanisms to correct unsustainable environmental practices and instead relies on endless expansion through the "treadmill of production." The only solution, according to the document, is a transition to socialism which organizes production democratically according to human and environmental needs rather than profit.
This series of blog has been prepared by the author (Shahadat Hossain Shaki) for the partial
fulfilment of his master’s program course ―Key Debates in Environmental Governance‖, which has been supervised by Prof. Dr. Maria Kaika.
Blog Link: http://environmentalgovernance.wordpress.com/author/shshakil/
Author can be contacted for further query and suggestions at : shshakil.buet@gmail.com
This is a presentation about capitalism; how it works and how it affects nature, being the principal destructor of our planet.
This work also presents ideas to stop contributing to the actual climate crisis.
***The material presented exposes the original ideas of the author***
YOUR COLOUR IS GREEN - PAPER OF LUISA VINCIGUERRA ITALYLuisa Vinciguerra
WOMEN IN THE GREEN ECONOMY. ROLE AND PROMOTION STRATEGIES OF INNER WHEEL, is the title of the Paper of Luisa Vinciguerra, connected with the Power Point Presentation.
1. The document discusses the need to move away from unlimited economic growth models and towards more sustainable models of development with decreased consumption. Continued economic growth is putting unsustainable stress on the planet's ecosystems.
2. It argues that economic degrowth, involving reduced consumption and working hours, is necessary to stabilize the climate and prevent irreparable environmental damage. Emerging economies need to promote more sustainable economic models to serve as an example for other countries.
3. Public policies are needed to incentivize more sustainable behaviors around housing, transportation, food, and consumption. Taxing unsustainable goods and services can encourage changes to new social standards based on planetary boundaries and perennial values.
Watershed Conference - "The value nature vs the nature of value" - 2006Steve McKinney
The document discusses environmental economics and the valuation of natural systems using the concept of ecological services value (ESV). It defines key terms like total economic value and describes how ESV can provide a common metric to evaluate the stormwater impacts of development decisions. The research aims to develop a methodology and decision tool to calculate ESV based on stormwater modeling. Examples applying the ESV approach to residential and commercial development sites are provided. The tool is intended to help decision-makers compare economic and environmental factors.
Presentation prepared for a series of lectures on Environmentalism for PS 240 introduction to Political Theory at the University of Kentucky, Spring 2007. Dr. Christopher S. Rice, Instructor.
Ecological economics differs from mainstream economics in several key ways:
1) It views the economy as a subsystem of larger ecological systems, not separate from the environment.
2) It focuses on the throughput of resources and adheres to the laws of thermodynamics, concerned with resource depletion and waste assimilation.
3) It considers the scale of the economy relative to ecosystems and believes uneconomic growth can occur when scale becomes too large.
The document discusses environmental problems caused by human activities and how to achieve environmental sustainability. It covers topics like our growing ecological footprints; causes of environmental problems like population growth, poverty, and failure to include environmental costs; different views on sustainability; and scientific principles like reliance on solar energy, biodiversity, population control, and nutrient cycling.
Environmental economics studies the economic impact of environmental policies and how climate changes can affect the economy. The field helps design appropriate policies and analyze their effects. For example, a policy to save the endangered bluefin tuna from overfishing would require investments in tuna population renewal, substitutes, and enforcement that could decrease revenues from tuna fishing but are necessary to prevent extinction and ensure future sustainability. Effective implementation is estimated to cost $5-7.5 billion over 5 years.
Sustainability Reading: Natural Capital and Ecosystem RightsSam Bleiberg
A short powerpoint on the carbon cycle, natural capital, and rights for ecosystems based on readings for the Pratt Sustainable Design Foundations Course.
1. The document discusses several perspectives on addressing climate change from various publications. It outlines 10 suggestions for policymakers from the book "Human Choice and Climate Change" including taking a holistic view and recognizing both environmental and institutional limits.
2. It also summarizes key points from other publications. One argues international climate mechanisms are cumbersome and insufficient. Another notes we disagree on climate change because we worry about different things. A third discusses defining climate change as a "wicked problem" with many potential solutions.
3. The document advocates for a pluralistic approach incorporating hierarchical, individualistic, and egalitarian forms of governance when addressing climate change. It promotes "many 10% solutions" rather than one single solution
This document provides an overview of the concepts of a green economy and poverty eradication. It defines a green economy as one that improves human well-being and social equity while reducing environmental risks. It then discusses green economists' views and provides definitions for aspects of a green economy such as renewable energy and clean transportation. The document also critiques some mainstream conceptions of the green economy and discusses how poverty is defined and approaches to reducing poverty through improving health, education, infrastructure, employment, and productivity. It concludes by comparing strategies in China, India, and Brazil and noting that a transition to a green economy could help reduce poverty and vulnerability over the long term.
Permaculture design I- intro, state of the world, ethics and principles 1-4Doug Crouch
This document discusses the principles and design of permaculture. Permaculture is defined as the harmonious integration of ecosystems and human systems to create self-sustaining landscapes. It aims to mimic natural patterns to build interconnected systems that are productive, efficient, and abundant. The key principles of permaculture design include observing natural relationships and patterns in nature, ensuring multiple functions for all design elements, and placing elements in zones based on their needs and how often they are used by people. Permaculture provides solutions for sustainably meeting human needs while protecting the environment.
The document discusses different theories and paradigms of environmentalism. It defines environmentalism as a social movement and body of thought concerned with limiting human impacts on the natural environment. It then outlines key aspects of environmentalism like awareness, knowledge, participation and capacity building. The document discusses the history of environmentalism from the industrial revolution to modern times. It also outlines different paradigms for understanding the relationship between environment, society and economy, including economic environmentalism, radical environmentalism, reform environmentalism and ecological modernization.
This document discusses environmental ethics and environmental costs. It defines environmental ethics as the moral relationship between humans and the environment. Environmental ethics considers that the earth and its creatures have intrinsic value and moral status. The document also defines environmental costs as costs that directly impact a company financially or costs to society and the environment that the company is not accountable for. It identifies internal costs like conventional, hidden, and contingent costs as well as external costs like environmental degradation and impacts on humans that cannot be compensated legally.
This document discusses environmental ethics and provides definitions of key concepts. It begins by stating that ethics are important for development and societies without ethical principles can experience moral decay. It then defines concepts like values, morals, environment, ecology, ecosystem, and different perspectives on environmental ethics like anthropocentrism, biocentrism, and ecocentrism. The document examines environmental ethics as the application of ethical standards to human relationships with the environment and poses example ethical dilemmas. It explores expanding ethical consideration to include animals, communities, and nature. In closing, it recommends developing a holistic perspective that preserves ecological connections.
The document discusses various definitions and models of sustainable development. It defines sustainable development as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. It describes models such as the three pillars model focusing on economy, environment and society. Another model presented is the sustainability model depicting the interdependence of people and ecosystems. The document also discusses measures of sustainable development like the Gross National Happiness Index and different sustainability indicators.
The document is an agenda for a presentation on estimating the value of natural resources. It will include an overview of ecological economics, the global ecological footprint, methods for estimating ecosystem value, and an group activity to evaluate estimation methods with an example. It also discusses definitions and perceptions of sustainability, challenges related to population growth and resource use, and objectives of ecological economics around sustainable scale, efficient allocation, and just distribution.
Ecological economics and biodiversity conservationSaroj Upadhyay
definition of economics, types of economic systems, environmental impacts of traditional economic systems, Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), Ecological economics and its capitals, Conventional unsustainable vs Environmentally sustainable economic growth, Economics of Ecosystem and Biodiversity,Ecological Economics And Biodiversity Conservation
This document discusses environmental issues and pollution in India. It provides context on environmental laws and policies from ancient, medieval, and British rule in India. Some key points made are:
- Air, water, and land pollution pose major challenges for public health and the environment in India.
- Ancient India had environmental protections enshrined in scriptures, but the British era saw increased exploitation of forests and curtailing of community rights.
- Modern environmental laws were introduced to regulate activities like water use, pollution, and wildlife conservation, but pollution remains a significant problem in India.
This document outlines several major environmental threats facing the world:
- Environmental racism leads to inequitable exposure to hazards like lead poisoning, which disproportionately affects minority children in the US.
- Overfishing, particularly of sharks, is unsustainable as shark populations grow slowly and their removal could damage ocean ecosystems.
- Rapid population growth of around 79 million people per year is exacerbating other environmental problems.
- Deforestation through clear-cutting removes 9-12 million hectares of forests annually, especially for agriculture.
- The sudden collapse of the Larsen B Ice Shelf in Antarctica in 2002 signals that climate change may cause further catastrophic events.
This document discusses and compares positive and negative rights. It defines negative rights as the right to be free from government interference or coercion, such as freedom of speech or private property rights. Positive rights oblige the government to provide something, like healthcare or education, which requires taxes and restrictions on individuals. Most countries recognize both types of rights to varying degrees. The US Constitution is viewed as primarily protecting negative rights by restricting government actions rather than mandating actions. Conservatives generally prefer traditions and oppose rapid changes, seeking to conserve existing power structures and ways of life.
1 29-13 welcome introduction to environ sociologyJohn Bradford
This document introduces environmental sociology as the study of the relationship between societies and their natural environments. It discusses the three dimensions of environmental sociology: how consumption, the economy, technology, and population affect environmental conditions (material); how patterns of thought and beliefs affect environmental conditions (ideal); and what can be done to study and ameliorate environmental problems (practical). The first chapter will cover sustainability issues like energy, climate change, and pollution, as well as environmental justice.
The document discusses various federal laws and constitutional amendments that prohibit discrimination in employment, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, and laws protecting against discrimination based on sex, religion, pregnancy and family status. It also covers topics like sexual harassment, reasonable accommodations for disabilities, disparate treatment vs disparate impact claims of discrimination, and protections for employees who oppose discriminatory practices.
This document provides an overview of rights theory, beginning with a brief history of important documents that established rights such as the Magna Carta, Declaration of Independence, and Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It discusses the concepts of natural law, natural rights, and human rights, and that human rights belong to all humans by virtue of their humanity. The document also outlines different types of rights like absolute, limited, and qualified rights, as well as negative and positive rights. It considers rights in relation to property, women, work, animals, and law.
This document discusses various types of discrimination that can occur in the workplace, including gender discrimination through stereotypes about jobs, salaries, pregnancy issues, and sexual harassment. It also covers racial and nationality discrimination based on color and geographic origin, as well as age discrimination against both young and old workers, and other forms of discrimination based on sexual orientation, religion, appearance, and social status.
Isaiah Berlin distinguished between two concepts of freedom: positive freedom and negative freedom. Negative freedom is freedom from external restraints and interference from others, exemplified by classical liberalism. Positive freedom sees freedom as having the ability and means to fulfill one's potential and aims, as advocated by modern liberals who saw social disadvantages as limiting freedom. These two views of freedom have different implications for the role of the state and individual responsibility.
The document introduces environmental geography and discusses how human actions can damage the environment. It provides examples of how activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation, plastic waste, and oil drilling release pollutants and greenhouse gases that harm the environment. The document urges readers to consider how to reduce their environmental impact and lists some causes and effects of environmental damage.
This document discusses environmental laws, acts, and ethics in India. It provides an overview of key environmental laws in India like the Air Act, Environment Protection Act, and Water Act. It describes the objectives of establishing regulatory authorities and frameworks to prevent pollution and protect the environment. The document also covers environmental ethics, discussing the development of considering non-human ethics, different ethical perspectives, and how environmental ethics are reflected in Indian traditions, religions and philosophy dating back to Vedic times. It aims to promote protecting the environment through following acts and maintaining strong environmental ethics.
Visit www.RMPSuccess.com
Kantian ethics is, arguably, the most beautiful Philosophy written. It is grand, intimidating, and at times quixotic; however, it has been an integral component of the Higher and Intermediate curriculum and thus required the proper intention. When a student is faced with Kant’s lofty descriptions of ‘duty’ and ‘good’ one can’t help but feel for them. I must assure you, whilst bearing in mind everything I have said, for the studious mind it is also one of the most engaging pieces of philosophy and one in which you will be able to write about hopefully with interest.
Job discrimination can take many forms and negatively impact individuals and groups. Discrimination in employment involves decisions not made based on individual merit but rather from prejudice regarding things like race or sex. Both intentional and unintentional discrimination can occur at the individual or institutional level. Evidence of job discrimination includes statistical differences in outcomes, attitudinal biases, and differences experienced by gender and race. Affirmative action laws aim to promote fairness and compensate for past harms, but are also controversial. Discrimination creates inefficiencies and violates principles of rights, justice, and utility.
Employment discrimination laws prohibit employers from discriminating against employees based on characteristics such as age, race, gender, religion, disability and genetic information. Federal laws like Title VII, the ADA, ADEA, and GINA make it illegal to discriminate in hiring, firing, pay, and other employment activities. However, courts have ruled that losing a required security clearance for non-discriminatory reasons is a valid basis for termination even if a discrimination claim is made.
job discrimination,job specification and job analysispiyush dobariya
This document discusses job descriptions and specifications. It defines a job description as a statement of the duties and responsibilities of a specific job, while a job specification outlines the minimum acceptable human qualities needed to perform a job. The document provides examples of the contents of a job description and specification. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each, such as how they can help with recruitment and selection or take a long time to develop.
Script for the water conservation and management presentationNandita Mehta
This document contains a draft script for a presentation on water conservation and management. It begins with introductory quotes about humanity's dependence on water. The presentation then thanks those who supported making the presentation happen. The main goals are to highlight water's significance, that it is taken for granted despite being a non-renewable resource, and to encourage responsibility in passing it to future generations. The group embarked on learning about water to understand why conservation is important. Later slides discuss water sources, needs, scarcity issues, and techniques to meet demand such as rainwater harvesting, reuse, and desalination.
Werner Sattmann-Frese - Psychological Perspectives of Ecological CrisesWerner Sattmann-Frese
This PowerPoint presentation explores the causes of ecological crises from a range of social and psychological perspectives. It compares these ways of understanding our ecological problems with the ones currently used in environmental education. Solutions for an integrated approach to positive ecological change are suggested.
Dr Werner Sattmann-Frese is a psychotherapist, social ecologist, and senior lecturer at the Jansen Newman Institute (Think Education Group) in Sydney.
Economics is a social science that deals with how societies allocate their scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants and needs. It studies how individuals and groups make choices to fulfill their material desires. Understanding economics helps explain issues like how resources, taxes, and government spending are allocated in a society with limited means. Studying economics also provides insight into international trade, economic growth, and improving standards of living.
This document provides an overview of the relationship between environmental degradation and social integration. It discusses how social factors can influence the environment through changes in population, markets, land tenure systems, and social inequities. Environmental degradation then impacts societies through effects on health, livelihoods, and resources people depend on. Individual and collective responses to environmental changes can transform social structures over time. The document reviews policy approaches to addressing degradation and argues for holistic strategies that consider social and environmental dynamics in specific contexts.
HLEG thematic workshop on measuring economic, social and environmental resili...StatsCommunications
HLEG thematic workshop on Measuring economic, social and environmental resilience, 25-26 November 2015, Rome, Italy, More information at: http://oe.cd/StrategicForum2015
6th International Disaster and Risk Conference IDRC 2016 Integrative Risk Management - Towards Resilient Cities. 28 August - 01 September 2016 in Davos, Switzerland
Population ecology theory postulates and lessons for strategic managementJack Onyisi Abebe
The diversity of organizations in society depends on the both the number of organizational forms and the distribution of organizations over forms".
This is a dynamic process, with new forms being created, some orgs changing into other forms, and some forms going away. Organizations are created and disbanded or merged. organization that cannot change strategy and structure as quickly as their environments can change.
This document discusses business ethics and corporate governance in the context of ecology and the environment. It addresses several issues: (1) whether actions that protect ecosystems, like controlling overpopulated species or restoring mined land, are morally permissible; (2) the moral obligations of companies regarding environmental stewardship; and (3) the relationship between ethics and ecology. Ecological ethics examines how human values, norms and conduct should consider ecological conditions and non-human life. While industry uses significant resources and can damage the environment through pollution, companies also have a role to play in conservation efforts through improving efficiency.
This document discusses research questions around governance and institutions for addressing climate change, agriculture, and food security. It covers several topics including governance architectures, the roles of different actors, adaptiveness, accountability, and access and allocation. For each topic, it outlines relevant definitions and questions for research.
Environment Notes for psychology Semester third.pdfDrDeeptiSharma12
This document discusses sustainability and its key concepts. It defines sustainability as meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs. This requires balancing economic, environmental, and social considerations. The concept of sustainability emerged from concerns over poverty, environmental degradation, and lack of long-term prosperity from development. It aims to harmonize ecology and prosperity. Sustainability has three pillars - economic, environmental, and social - referred to as profits, planet, and people. Direct drivers of ecological change include climate change, land use change, and pollution, which impact society through effects on ecosystem services and human well-being.
This document discusses different perspectives on ethics and values as they relate to the environment, including:
- Universalists who believe there are objective notions of right and wrong across cultures, versus relativists who believe ethics vary by social context.
- Anthropocentrism which views the environment solely in terms of human impacts, versus biocentrism and ecocentrism which consider impacts on all living things and ecological systems.
- Deep ecology, which holds that humans are inseparable from nature and should protect all life as their own.
The document outlines several macro practice theories including organizational behavior theory, learning organization theory, social development perspective, community organization theory, human rights perspective, ecological theory, general systems theory, conflict theory, social learning theory, empowerment theory, and management theory. Each theory is described in 1-2 sentences with key terms and potential interventions provided.
Environmental ethics examines the moral relationship between humans and the environment. It considers how ethical principles like justice, sustainability, sufficiency, compassion, solidarity, and participation can guide environmental decision-making and behavior. Applying these principles involves considering all stakeholders affected by an issue, including future generations, other species, and ecosystems. It also means ensuring all parties, especially vulnerable groups, can meaningfully participate in decisions that impact them. Overall, environmental ethics aims to promote equitable, sustainable, and compassionate treatment of both humans and non-humans.
This chapter introduces several theoretical perspectives relevant for understanding human behavior at the macro level, including ecosystems theory, structural functionalism, and conflict theory. It also discusses feminist, empowerment, and anti-oppressive perspectives. Ecosystems theory views people interacting within environmental contexts and emphasizes sustainability. Structural functionalism examines social institutions and their functions in maintaining societal equilibrium, while conflict theory sees society as characterized by power struggles and inequality. Feminist perspectives analyze gender-based disparities in status and power across cultures and history.
Human ecology theory views humans and families as interacting with their environments. It considers these relationships as systems, with families carrying out biological, economic, and social functions for themselves and society. Families and environments are interdependent and influence each other. Families must adapt as they allocate resources to meet individual and family needs while balancing cooperation with demands for autonomy. The goal is survival and improving quality of life while sustaining natural resources.
Participatory Action Research for Sustainable Tribal Livelihood: An Eco Chain...IBRADKolkata
ABSTRACT: The indigenous tribal community and forest have a symbiotic
relationship. Arresting the forest's degradation and development of livelihood option have
been tried with the Santhal in Purulia District of West Bengal as a partner through Participatory
Action Research (PAR). The Eco Chain Approach for creating awareness and SAPTASWAR,
a method to develop appropriate social institution for the conservation of natural resources
and adoption of technology developed by IBRAD, is illustrated with a case study herewith.
It is being carried out as an outcome-oriented intervention and finally generating a new
body of knowledge for replication in the similar context of sustainable livelihood of the
community.
The document discusses how the environment influences culture in three key ways:
1) Environmental relativism - aspects of the physical environment are relevant to cultures and traditions, and cultures must adapt as the environment changes due to climate change.
2) Subsistence patterns, economic systems, and religion are all shaped by the natural environment and must change as the environment changes.
3) As the environment changes due to factors like climate change, individuals are forced to change their way of life and adapt their culture in order to survive. This causes traditionally nomadic cultures and environment-based traditions to evolve over time.
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1) Regenerative design aims to engage human activities in positive relationships with all life by restoring ecosystems and focusing on interrelationships rather than just minimizing impacts.
2) Living system design views places as unique, interconnected systems and recognizes that life only regenerates through exchange of energies between interrelated living entities.
3) The role of design is to create opportunities for ongoing, evolutionary relationships between people and life that inform infrastructure and buildings.
Similar to Ecological economics. Farber & bradley (20)
Este documento describe cómo se forma el petróleo a través de la descomposición de organismos marinos bajo la superficie terrestre, y cómo el petróleo fluye hacia arriba a través de la corteza terrestre. También explica la gran dependencia del mundo actual del petróleo, que se utiliza en la industria, la agricultura, los transportes y una amplia variedad de productos de uso común.
El documento habla sobre la importancia de realizar consultas a la comunidad para medir el éxito de los procesos de gestión. Solicita al lector que analice su experiencia en el curso "Introducción a la sustentabilidad" en al menos 200 palabras y que argumente claramente su respuesta.
Este documento habla sobre la gestión ambiental de organizaciones. Explica que la gestión ambiental consiste en organizar las actividades humanas para lograr un balance entre la calidad del ambiente humano y natural. También describe los sistemas de gestión ambiental que usan las empresas, incluyendo la política ambiental, planes de desarrollo ambiental, educación ambiental, y normas de calidad como ISO 14000. El objetivo final es reducir el impacto negativo en el medio ambiente y usar los recursos de manera responsable.
Este documento trata sobre la gestión ambiental de organizaciones. Explica que la gestión ambiental consiste en organizar las actividades humanas para lograr un balance entre la calidad del ambiente humano y natural. También describe que la gestión ambiental ocurre tanto en el ámbito público como privado y a nivel nacional, provincial y municipal. Además, resalta algunas ventajas de implementar sistemas de gestión ambiental como la reducción del impacto negativo, el ahorro de recursos y costos.
La economía azul se refiere a la explotación sostenible de los recursos oceánicos como fuente de crecimiento económico, mejora de los medios de subsistencia y empleo a través de actividades como el transporte marítimo, la energía eólica marina, la acuicultura y el turismo costero.
La última lectura corresponde a un diagrama.
Actividad: Lea las partes del diagrama con atención, observando colores, flechas y conexiones. Luego, explique el diagrama con sus propias palabras en no más de 200 palabras.
El siguiente artículos de Wikipedia explica brevemente que es la Norma ISO 14000.
Actividad: Indique cuales son las etapas del proceso de gestión ambiental descrito en esta Norma.
Para calcular tu huella de carbono personal, visita www.footprintnetwork.org, selecciona "personal footprint" en "footprint basics" y completa la prueba, la cual estimará tu impacto ambiental basado en tu ubicación y estilo de vida.
Manual for calculating adjusted net savingsIntrosust
Lea hasta la página 7 (aunque se le recomienda leer el documento completo).
Actividad:
¿Por qué es el ahorro ajustado neto una mejora respecto a los cálculos estándar de ahorro neto?
On the methodology of isew, gpi... (neumayer, 2000)Introsust
This document provides a critical analysis of the methodology used to calculate the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW), Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), and related measures. It focuses on three key areas: the valuation of non-renewable resource depletion, the valuation of long-term environmental damage, and the adjustment of consumption for income inequality. The document argues that the widely cited "threshold hypothesis" - which suggests economic growth stops improving welfare above a certain point - may be an artifact of questionable assumptions in how these three areas are measured, particularly the assumption of escalating replacement costs for resource depletion and the assumption of cumulative long-term environmental damage. Sensitivity analysis shows that without these assumptions, the threshold effect disappears
Lea las primeras 15 páginas (aunque se recomienda leer el documento completo).
Actividad: Mencione los 3 países que le llaman más la atención respecto a su huella ecológica, e indique apróx. cómo se distribuye (en porcentaje) los componentes de ésta.
Introducción a la sustentabilidad, octava claseIntrosust
Este documento presenta una introducción a la economía ecológica, comparándola con la economía neoclásica y describiendo sus principios fundamentales, como la sostenibilidad de los sistemas económicos y ecológicos. También menciona autores e investigaciones clave y propone una actividad grupal para debatir la enseñanza de la economía ecológica.
La economía ecológica considera los impactos ambientales y sociales de las decisiones económicas, mientras que la economía neoclásica se centra principalmente en el crecimiento económico y la maximización de las ganancias. Ambas perspectivas tienen sus fortalezas y debilidades, y una combinación de enfoques puede ser lo mejor para lograr un desarrollo sostenible a largo plazo.
Development of ecological economics (constanza, 1997)Introsust
This document provides an overview of ecological economics as a field that aims to integrate ecology and economics. It discusses:
1) The historical roots and motivations for developing ecological economics as a field that brings together ecology and economics, which had developed separately.
2) Some of the basic organizing principles of ecological economics, including viewing ecological and economic systems as complex, adaptive systems and focusing on goals like sustainability and fair distribution of resources.
3) How ecological economics examines material and energy flows between ecological and economic systems, grounded in principles of thermodynamics and conservation of mass. Models incorporate biophysical realities and limits.
Para la actividad sólo debes leer el capítulo 3 (pg. 63-84), aunque es recomendable que lea todo lo que pueda.
Actividad: Basándose en el texto, escriba en breve sobre las diferencias y similitudes entre la economía, la ecología y la economía ecológica.
Este documento describe la energía nuclear de potencia y su posible aplicación en Chile. Explica que la energía nuclear podría generar electricidad de forma segura y a bajo costo para satisfacer la creciente demanda del país. Sin embargo, también señala que existen riesgos asociados y que requiere del apoyo público. Finalmente, analiza el contexto energético de Chile y cómo este llevó al gobierno a reconsiderar la opción nuclear en 2007.
C7 T1 Perspectivas Legales - Energía Nuclear en ChileIntrosust
Actividad: Luego de la lectura del texto, Responda ¿Cuan importante es tener una legislación adecuada y actualizada para enfrentar los nuevos desafíos energéticos que requiere Chile? ¿Son estos cambios posibles en un próximo gobierno? Comente considerando las propuestas sobre energías (si las hay) de alguno de los candidatos presidenciales de las próximas elecciones. (el que usted prefiera)
En Chile una gran parte de la matriz energética está centrada en Energía Hidroeléctrica, como muestra el mapa adjunto. Pero también Chile tiene un enorme potencial en energía solar, eolica y mareomotriz (o undimotriz).
Actividad: Elija una de estás energías e indique en que parte del país debería hacerse el mejor proyecto (Ojo con el mejor) considerando el Potencial energético que tiene el país en alguno de sus territorios. Revise la web y bibliografía para dar una respuesta consistente.
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
* What is Vector Search?
* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
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Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
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In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
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2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
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Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
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1. ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
Stephen Farber
Graduate School of Public and International Affairs
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA 15101
Dennis Bradley
USDA Forest Service
North Central Forest Experiment Station
1992 Folwell Ave
St. Paul, MN 55108
In this paper, we outline how the emerging interdisciplinary perspective of
Ecological Economics can be of use in providing conceptual and concrete
approaches to identifying, understanding, and maintaining those features of
ecosystem and human economic interactions that are necessary to achieve
sustainable futures for economic and natural systems.
WHAT IS ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS?
Ecological economics is a policy-oriented perspective that addresses the
interdependence and coevolution between human economies and their natural
ecosystems. Interest in this area has been prompted by concerns for the adverse
impacts of human economic growth processes on natural systems. Ecological
economics is positive, in its development of understanding of the physical,
biological and social structural and functional relations between economies and
natural ecosystems. Ecological economics is also normative in addressing
appropriate roles of human economies within natural ecosystems. The guiding
norm is the somewhat operationally vague notion of jointly sustainable human
and natural ecosystems. Finally, ecological economics is prescriptive, in
proposing institutions and behaviors compatible with sustainability norms. Its
position as a discipline is on the boundary of economic and natural systems,
focussing on impacts of each system on the other.
WHAT IS THE ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS PERSPECTIVE?
Ecological economics recognizes that humans and their economies are parts of
larger natural ecosystems and coevolve with those natural systems. There is a
material and energy basis for the relations between human economies and their
ecosystems, defining not only economic, but social, structures and processes.
Economies possess general ecosystem properties, such as dynamism, evolution,
integrity, stability and resilience. Economies are inextricably embedded in larger
2. natural ecosystems, and exchange flows of materials and energy with natural
systems.
What makes humans and their economies unique as a sub-ecosystem is their
ability, through willful effort, ignorance and human designed tools, to
dramatically restructure and reform processes in ecosystems of which they are a
part; and to such a magnitude that human welfare can be diminished or enhanced
by those original actions. There are many factual examples (World Commission
on Environment and Development, 1987; Goudie, 1994). Some types of
economic activities, and the welfare that originates from them, would not be
sustainable if they substantially adversely impact natural systems.
The willful effort to extract useful things from natural systems is motivated by
the satisfaction of basic biological needs and the seemingly limitless search for
pleasure through consumption of goods and through social associations. The
magnitude of potential impact on their own welfare through effects on natural
systems requires that human decisions be guided by some notion of the value of
their actions and the value of their impacts on ecosystems, either in terms of
benefits of use or costs of abuse. Some concept of value is required for rational
activities of human economies within their natural systems (Page, 1992).
Both the structures and processes of natural systems have identifiable
instrumental value to the human economy. These narrow use values may be
reflected by the summation of individual values, to the extent they are private.
However, natural systems also have aesthetic, moral and cultural values (Sagoff,
1988). These values are more intrinsic and unmeasurable using traditional human
preferences. They may not be reflected in the simple summation across social
members of individual values, since they are social and not wholly private.
Valuation is made more complicated by the fact that our natural environment is
highly likely to shape values through establishing social and economic relations,
aesthetic standards and culture. If so, our decisions now about the natural
environment will shape future value systems, making values endogenous and,
therefore, a poor guide to behavior. A way out of this dilemma is to make
valuations of natural systems based on "What we would like to see society
become," rather than to ask what current valuations are (Page, 1992). The value
of natural systems is then based on their ability to assist us in becoming what we
wish to be. The management dilemma is to organize a method for establishing
what society wishes to see itself become, then assist in attaining that wish
through knowledge of economic and ecological systems, and then to prescribe
methods of attainment.
3. Unless there is evidence to the contrary, an initial working presumption about
human society is that any society would like to see the welfare of its members
exceed some minimal level, and would like to provide the opportunities to meet
the aspirations for a better life (World Commission on Environment and
Development, 1987). Such a society would seek to have welfare sustainable
above minimum levels and to have a sustainable development toward welfare
enhancements, where the latter is interpreted more broadly than growth in
material things and includes educational attainment, health, and increases in basic
freedoms (Pearce, et al., 1990).
WHAT IS THE ECOLOGICAL ECONOMIC PROBLEM?
Tools, insatiable wants and the potential danger of ignorance place humans in a
unique position of being able to alter their ecosystems in ways that jeopardize
their own social and economic structures and processes. While any species could
exceed its own natural ecosystem's carrying capacity or diminish that capacity to
the point of self-extinction, only the human species has both the will and capacity
to jeopardize itself, as well as the will and capacity to avoid it.
Furthermore, our understanding of ecosystems is primitive. We know that
structures change through normal succession and evolution, that processes are
altered as the structures through which they occur change, that processes have
various temporal and spatial scales, and that catastrophic changes can occur
without much evident alteration of structures and processes. However, beyond
this abstract knowledge and except for a finite number of circumstances, we
know too little about ecosystems to be confident that we can predict the full
range of impacts of human economies on ecosystems.
Finally, moral systems in human society may be incompatible with what a
society would like to see itself become; e.g., individualism and instrumental
valuation may be inconsistent with sustainable welfare norms. Social morality is
embodied in an entire set of institutions, social relations and views of natural
systems.
The ecological economics problem is to address the potential willful capacity of
humans to alter their own relatively unknown environment to such an extent that
they can adversely impact their own current or future welfare. This means
monitoring for instances where this is a serious problem and informing through
meaningful communication. It also means making suggestions for altering human
behaviors or moral systems that appear incompatible with the sustainability of
economic and natural systems, or that are incompatible with what society wishes
to become.
4. WHAT TASKS ARE REQUIRED FOR ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS?
The ecological economics problem, outlined above, is addressed through five
tasks:
1. Modelling and Science--Understand the interdependence between economic
and natural systems, particularly between the structures, processes, and fluxes of
material and energy upon which each system depends. This includes
understanding the tolerances of ecosystems to human induced changes as well as
the tolerances of economies to ecosystem changes.
2. Conditions for Sustainability--Establish conditions on human economies that
would allow for the sustainability and growth of human welfare, conditioned
upon the sustainability of the economy's supporting ecosystem.
3. Indicators and Signals--Establish indicators reflecting the current status of
economies and ecosystems relative to the norm of sustainability, and include
measures of ecosystem and economic health. Also, establish signals reflecting
potential impacts of human activity on welfare insofar as those impacts result
from alterations in ecosystem structures and processes.
4. Instruments, Laws and Institutions--Develop necessary regulatory instruments,
laws and associated institutions that assist human economies in attaining
sustainable welfare development goals.
5. Moral Systems--Examine the implications of various moral systems for the
sustainability of human welfare, and place in bold relief those instances where
there are apparent incompatibilities between moral systems and sustainability
norms.
WHAT IS THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE PREVAILING
MANAGEMENT PARADIGM AND THAT PROPOSED BY
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS?
In order to understand the management implication of the ecological economics
framework, it would be useful to contrast it to a characterization of the current
management paradigm. The two paradigms differ primarily on the primacy given
to human economies versus natural ecosystems. The Prevailing Management
Paradigm focusses on how humans can manage ecosystems for instrumental
purposes of optimizing human economic wealth. This wealth is typically
measured in the value of utility enhancing things and actions, frequently
measured by "willingness to pay" or "willingness to accept" monetary
compensation for gains or losses, and by summing across independent
individuals. Preferences are typically taken as given and immutable, and the
5. manipulation of natural systems for human benefit addresses those preferences.
This management paradigm approaches uncertainty about natural systems by
either denying or opting in favor of human economies. If not denying the
uncertainty, the optimistic argument is given that natural processes are either
reversible with enough time and engineering skill, or economic systems can find
human-made replacements for lost ecosystem materials and services. The
prevailing issue for this paradigm is "How can we use the ecosystem to more
effectively enhance human wealth and welfare?"
An alternative to this paradigm is suggested if we weight more highly the belief
that ecosystems are critical to social survival, our ignorance about how
ecosystems work, our uncertainty about the full potential value of natural
ecosystems to the economy, and our ignorance about preferences of future
generations. Ecological economics, using what we may term an Ecological
Economic Stewardship Paradigm, would ask the following management
questions:
1. What does society wish to become?
2. What is the requisite health of an ecosystem relative to that social objective?
3. What set of human economic artifacts, structures and processes is feasible
within that requisite healthy ecosystem?
4. How can we use the adaptability and behaviors of human economies to assure
they meet their own welfare needs as well as the needs for preservation of a
healthy ecosystem?
This perspective first requires a social dialogue to establish what society would
like itself to become. This is primary to development of ecosystem health
concepts since it establishes the basic value system from which ecosystem and
economic health are measured. In the presence of ignorance about ecosystems,
the presumption is made that human systems are adaptable to the constraint of a
healthy ecosystem and, possibly, more adaptable than the natural system itself,
the latter being more slowly evolutionary and potentially susceptible to
catastrophes in response to apparently minor changes. Adaptable and flexible
human economic systems are seen as the key to successful long term
management of ecosystems. The management focus is shifted from ecosystem
manipulation under the prevailing paradigm to exploitation of the adaptability of
human economies.
6. Under the ecological economics Stewardship Paradigm, the primary issue is
preserving basic properties of natural systems. Once these are established, the
management problem is to develop a compatible adaptation strategy for the
human economy to the constraints set by the goal of preservation of natural
ecosystem health. Health is defined implicitly by what society would like to see
itself and the world around it become. Preserving particular ecosystem forms
would not be as important as preserving ecosystem structures and functions, such
as nutrient and hydrologic cycles, and preserving the resilience of the ecosystem
to dramatic external changes; and allowing ecosystems to evolve rather than face
catastrophic change. Long run sustainability of the human economy is viewed
within a larger context of sustaining the health and integrity of the natural
ecosystem within which humans are embedded. Adaptation requires defining
alternative courses of human action and increasing flexibility and resiliency of
human economies. Optimal human adaptation and flexibility under the
constraints of a long term, healthy, resilient natural ecosystem are the operative
concepts in this paradigm.
WHAT IS CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE UNDER THE ECOLOGICAL
ECONOMIC STEWARDSHIP PARADIGM?
The ecological economics Stewardship paradigm requires knowledge of how
ecosystems and economies work, and how they interact at various spatial and
temporal scales. This would be required under any responsible management
framework.
First, the ecological economics Stewardship framework requires knowledge of
both how natural ecosystems respond to economic activity, as well as how
economic activity responds to ecosystem changes. A seemingly useful analytical
construct at this boundary is a full ecological-economic, input-output matrix.
Flows of material, energy, nutrients, etc. between the economic and ecological
systems would be quantified and impacts of one system on the other could be
established. Such a model has been well-developed for the economy alone, and
ecologists have established energy flow models for ecosystems. However, little
progress has been made in coupling these two separate models in any meaningful
practical way (Isard, 1972; Daly, 1968; Cumberland, 1987; Costanza and
Hannon, 1989). A potentially useful coupling is currently being undertaken at the
University of Maryland (Costanza, Bockstael, et al.). An ecosystem model of the
Patuxent, Maryland watershed has been developed, where flows of nutrients and
energy flow between spatial cells. Economic land uses are predicted, with the
ecosystem configuration being an input to that prediction. Land use then feeds
back to the ecosystem through runoffs based on land use. The system is dynamic
and can be used in a practical way to predict land use and ecosystem
configuration.
7. The appropriate "Scale" and "Mix" of the human economic activity relative to the
natural ecosystem are critical issues at the ecological-economic interface (Daly,
1992). The carrying capacity of an ecosystem has been proposed to address
appropriate scale, and has been mechanistically applied in some circumstances
(Ehrlich, 1994; Hardin, 1991). A single number, for example the number of
humans, is meaningless since human innovation and biological evolution may
interact to moderate potentially adverse welfare effects of natural systems
changes. Also, a level of human welfare must be specified to make the concept
operational. A general index of the physical intensity of the human economy
relative to the natural system would be useful, such as Vitousek, et al.'s (1986)
estimation that humans appropriate forty percent of the net terrestrial primary
production of the biosphere, is striking although we do not know what level of
appropriation places the health of the natural system at risk. Recent attention has
moved toward the notion that an appropriate scale of economic activities would
preserve the resilience of the life-support systems on which they depend (Arrow,
et al., 1995). Resilience is the ability of the ecosystem to take shocks without
making catastrophic changes in structure or processes. In this perspective,
indicators of loss of resilience would be used to measure whether the scale or mix
of economic activities is "too large."
A more micro issue at the economy-ecosystem interface is the production
relation between natural systems and human or human-made capital. First, in a
pure production framework, natural systems can be viewed as natural capital
(Jansson, et al., 1994; Bradley and Xu, 1994), which is combined with economic
and social capital to generate welfare. Considerable social policy energy has been
expended in arguing that enhancements in natural capital reduce the need for
human or human-made capital. Instances in which natural systems and human-
based capital are complementary are most certainly cases where sustainability of
the natural system is valuable, if not critical, to human economies in the most
instrumental sense. For example, fishing boats have no value absent fishing
stock. On the margin, a larger fish stock increases the productivity of human and
human-made capital. On the margin, labor is more productive the cleaner the air
and water. These relations are the bases for the proposition that jobs and the
quality of ecosystems are positively linked (Templet and Farber, 1994).
Explorations of these relations between natural systems and human economic
productivities are undertaken by a wide range of disciplines.
Second, indicators of sustainable economic health are critical under Ecological
Economics Stewardship. Sustaining a flow of income (welfare) requires the
maintenance of the source of income, which is wealth (capital). Using the
analogy of natural capital, measures of sustainable economic health require the
subtraction from traditional economic income an amount necessary to replace
8. any net degradations in the quality of natural capital. The presumption is that
these degradations are reversible through investments from the economic sector
to the natural sector. Practical examples include full welfare indicators (Daly and
Cobb, 1989), and integrated adjustments of National Economic Accounts, or
Sector Accounts (agriculture, forestry, fishery, etc), for natural ecosystem
degradation (Van Dieren, 1995; Repetto, et al., 1989). The integrated accounts
approach seeks to measure sustainable economic welfare by subtracting the loss
in potential productivity of ecosystem degradation, or the cost of ecosystem
remediation, from positive values of the economy's production of useful goods
and services. Valuation of that natural capital loss is made from a purely
anthropogenic, current or discounted future generations perspective. The full
welfare indicators go further in proposing to measure a more general concept of
welfare than that represented by economic consumption opportunities, including
such factors as income inequities and crime rates. Non-integrated accounts
include, side by side, both traditional economic accounts and some physical
indicators of natural system conditions (Bradley and Xu, 1994).
Third, some concept of value must be established since human decisions are
going to be based on values gained versus values lost. Valuation could be
narrowly based on individual preferences, or more broadly on social preferences.
Basic physical and biological needs would have infinite value on an individual
basis, but may have only finite values on a social basis. Beyond basic physical
and biological needs of human economies, preferences can be viewed as molded
by a complex of social, genetic and natural forces. Ecological economics
suggests that preferences are mutable and adaptable. Requisite adaptations for
sustainability of natural systems, and how these preferences can be reshaped are
suggested research issues necessary for managing sustainable economic and
natural systems. Furthermore, aggregations of individual values may be less
important in valuing ecosystems than the value that society as a whole places on
them. Social valuation may be weighted more highly than individual valuations.
Studies of the divergence between the aggregate of independent, individual
valuations and joint, socially-based valuations, where these individuals set a
consensual value in some social decision setting, are necessary before valuing
large ecosystems.
Valuations of ecosystem services have typically been from the perspective of
current generations and propose that value is represented by the willingness to
pay for these services. Extensive valuation methods have been developed by
environmental economists (Freeman, 1993) and have been applied to large
ecosystems (Farber, 1996). However, these valuation procedures may not be
appropriate to valuing such services in a sustainability context. In a sustainability
context, ecosystem structure and functions would be evaluated on the basis of the
9. extent to which they contribute to the goal of economic and ecosystem health and
sustainability, rather than on the basis of their immediate contribution to current
economic welfare.
Valuation of ecosystems based on individual preferences can be useful where
spatial scales are narrow and temporal scales are short. However, the dramatic
and potentially most serious ecosystem issues, such as global warming, are huge
spatial and temporal scale problems. Preference-based valuations appear shallow
in this context. For example, an appropriate question would be the willingness of
future generations to pay current generations to avoid passing a legacy of a
severely degraded ecosystem. Future generations' preferences are simply
unknown, albeit possibly formable by current generations, through education and
cultural legacies, and adaptable to future circumstances. The current generation's
most empathetic valuation would consist of asking "How maximally sorry could
the future be if we altered their inherited ecosystem by action X?" Then, "What
would the valuation of that sorrow be?" Neither of these questions is answerable.
This conundrum may suggest the expedient policy of simply attempting to pass
to the future an ecosystem that has the ecological properties of integrity and
resilience.
Preference based valuations are further complicated by the time-dependence of
benefits from ecosystems. Traditional discounting is preference based. One
justification is based on extrapolating the presumption that a unit of something is
worth more to an individual today than years from now to the presumption that
this would also be true if it were different individuals at different points in time.
To avoid this individualistic presumption, economists have suggested using rates
of social time preference, which reflect how much an existing society would
discount the same society's benefits in the future. The problem with even this
social concept is that it places the members of the present society in a position of
dictating the legacy to be passed to the future, with the weighting of future
generations' welfare less than the current generations'. Arguments are made that
discounting is appropriate because investments will be made in the present that
will provide a legacy of increased productive capacity to the future, or that the
future will be more well-off than the present. Neither of these may be the case;
and if economic decisions result in irreversible destruction of ecosystem capital,
they will likely not be the case.
A discounting procedure consistent with sustainability goals could be as follows.
In making decisions over the management of ecosystems, those changes that
would enhance or degrade the human life support capacity of the ecosystem, in
the sense of providing for basic physical and biological needs would not be
discounted at all; i.e., have a zero discount rate. Those ecosystem changes that
10. impacted welfare above the threshold basic needs level would be discounted, but
at the social rate of discount (Mikesell, 1977).
A proposed, purely ecological valuation designed to avoid preferences altogether
would value ecosystem structures and processes solely by their capacity to
transform energy or matter; hence an "energy-based" valuation (Costanza, 1980;
Costanza, et al., 1989). This valuation is extreme in placing a zero weight on
human preferences, and may be too sterile to be attractive for ecosystem
management, although it is consistent with measuring ecosystem value relative to
the goal of preserving ecosystem processes.
as exceeding these points may irreversibly create a catastrophic change in
ecosystem form.
Fourth, the Ecological Economics Stewardship focus requires understanding of
human economic adaptability. This includes adaptability of preferences to new
circumstances, noted above. In addition, this requires knowledge of trade-offs
that the human economy has available to meet human needs and wants.
Knowledge about preference formation, and the speed and costs of adjustment to
changes in markets for economic goods and services are important to understand
how the economy can adapt to changes in ecosystem structure and processes.
Fifth, Ecological Economics Stewardship requires the use of property rights
systems, laws, and institutions that are incentive compatible with sustainability
norms. All economically driven incentive systems that have adverse
consequences for ecosystem health (Farber, 1991), and existing institutional
impediments to economic adaptability, such as farm subsidy programs and land
tenure systems, have to be illuminated to portray their full ecological-economic
impact. We are developing increasing knowledge about these perverse incentive
systems and institutional barriers to sustaining ecosystem health.
WHAT ARE THE BASES FOR DECISIONS UNDER UNCERTAINTY
WITH ECOLOGICAL ECONOMIC STEWARDSHIP?
We can distinguish between risk and uncertainty. Classic risk presumes that we
know some probability distribution associated with events and states of the
world. The concepts of expected value or most likely states are definable. Classic
uncertainty presumes there is no a prior knowledge of probabilities. As noted
above, the prevailing management paradigm approaches uncertainty about
natural systems by either denying or opting in favor of human economies. If not
denying the uncertainty, the optimistic argument is given that natural processes
are either reversible with enough time and engineering skill, or economic systems
11. can find human-made replacements for lost ecosystem materials and services.
Under Ecological Economics Stewardship, there is a presumed higher cost
associated with being wrong about reversibility, remediation, and mitigation of
degradations in natural system health. A precautionary (Perrings, 1991) or
minimum regrets approach to decisions that may adversely impact natural system
would opt in favor of ecosystem health protection. The cost of this decision rule
may not be so high, particularly if basic human needs are not at stake, since
human preferences and economic structures are adaptable.