Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.

1. PHYSIOLOGY OF BLOODPHYSIOLOGY OF BLOOD
Guided By-
Dr. Anil Govindrao Ghom
Dr. Savita Ghom
Dr. Ajit Mishra
Dr. Shweta Singh
Presented By-
Dr. Bratati Dey
(PG-I) Dept. of OMR

2. CONTENTSCONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION
 PROPERTIES OF BLOOD
 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
 FUNCTION OF BLOOD
 RBC
 ERYTHROPOIESIS
 HEMOGLOBIN
 WBC
 LEUKOPOIESIS
 PLATELET

3. INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
• Body is formed by solids & fluids, fluid part is more than 2/3
of the whole body.
• Water forms most of the fluid part of the body.
• Total quantity of body water in an average human being
weighting about 70 kg is about 40 L.
• Where average volume of blood in a normal adult is 5600ml

4. Fluid
of life
• Carries O2 from lungs
to all part of body
• CO2 from all part of
body to lungs
Fluid
of
growth
• Nutritive substances
from digestive system
• Hormone from
endocrine gland to all
the tissues
Fluid
of
health
• Protect the body
against disease
• Get rid of waste
products by
transporting then to
the excreatory organs

5. Blood as a Circulatory FluidBlood as a Circulatory Fluid

6. PROPERTIES OF BLOODPROPERTIES OF BLOOD
Properties
Color Volume
Reaction
& pH
Specific
gravity
Viscosity

7. ColorColor
 Blood is red in color.
 Arterial blood is scarlet red in color because it contains more
oxygen.
 Venus blood is purple red in color because of more
carbondioxide

8. VolumeVolume
 Average volume of blood in normal adult is 5 L.
 In newborn baby, the volume is 450ml, it increases during
growth.
 In female it is slightly less (4.5 L)
 It is about 8% of the body weight in a normal young healthy
adult

9. Reaction & pHReaction & pH
 Blood is slightly alkaline & its pH in normal condition is 7.4
 Acidosis and alkalosis describe conditions in which a
person's blood is, respectively, too acidic (pH below 7.35) and
too alkaline (pH above 7.45).

10. Specific gravitySpecific gravity
Specific gravity of total blood 1.052-1.061
Specific gravity of blood cells 1.092-1.101
Specific gravity of plasma 1.022-1.026

11. ViscosityViscosity
Blood is 5 time more viscous than water.
It is mainly due to red blood cells and plasma
proteins.

12. COMPOSITION OF BLOODCOMPOSITION OF BLOOD
Blood contains the blood cells (45%) which are
called formed elements & the liquid portion
known as plasma (55%).
BLOOD CELLSBLOOD CELLS
PLATELETS
RBC
WBC

13. HematocritHematocrit valuevalue
 The RBC is settle down at the bottom
having clear plasma at the top.
 Plasma forms55% & red blood cell 45% of
the total blood.
 Volume of RBC expressed in % is called the
hematocrit volume / PCV.
 In b/w plasma & RBC there is a thin layer of
white buffy coat this is formed by the
aggregation of WBC & platelet.

14. PLASMAPLASMA
Straw coloured clear liquid part of blood.
Content-
91% to 92% of water
8% to 9% of salt (organic & inorganic substances)
SERUMSERUM
 It is a clear straw colour fluid that oozes from
blood clot
Serum = plasma - fibrinogen

16. FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONS
OF BLOODOF BLOOD
NutritiveNutritive
Glucose, amino acidGlucose, amino acid
lipid and vitaminlipid and vitamin
RespiratoryRespiratory
O₂→ all tissueO₂→ all tissue
CO₂→alveoliCO₂→alveoli
ExcretoryExcretory
Waste product →kidneyWaste product →kidney
skin, liverskin, liver
Transport of hormoneTransport of hormone
Hormone from endocrineHormone from endocrine
gland → target tissuegland → target tissue
Regulation of water balanceRegulation of water balance
Regulation of body tempRegulation of body temp
ThermoregulatoryThermoregulatory
mechanismmechanism
StorageStorage
Protein glucose sodiumProtein glucose sodium
potassiumpotassium
DefensiveDefensive
NeutrophilNeutrophil && monocytemonocyte
engulf the bacteriaengulf the bacteria
lymphocyte = immunitylymphocyte = immunity

17. RED BLOOD CELLRED BLOOD CELL
(Erythrocyte)(Erythrocyte)

18. RBCRBC
 RBC are non-nucleated formed
elements in the blood
 Red color in RBC is due to
pigmentation by hemoglobin
 Normal value-
 4 - 5.5 million/cu mm
 In adult male- 5million/cu mm
 Female- 4.5 million/ cu mm

19. Morphology of RBCMorphology of RBC
Normal shape Normal size Normal structure
Disk shaped & biconcave
(dumbbell shaped)
Central portion is thinner
periphery is thicker
Biconcave contour of RBC
have some mechanical and
functional advantage
Diameter- 7.2µ (6.9-7.4µ)
Thickness- at the periphery it
is thicker 2.2µ at the center it
is thinner 1µ
Surface area – 120 sq µ
Volume- 85-90 cu µ
Non-nucleated, DNA is also
absent.
Mitochondria and golgi
apparatus is also absent in
RBC
Red blood cell does not have
insulin receptor so glucose
uptake of cell is not control by
insulin.
RBC has special type of
cystoskeleton which is made
up of actin & sprectin
The average volume of the
red blood cell is 90 to 95
cubic micrometers.

20. Properties of RBCProperties of RBC
RouleauxRouleaux formationformation :-
When blood is taken out of the blood vessel, RBC pile up one
above another like the pile of coins.
 This property of RBC is called rouleaux (pleural = rouleau)
formation

21. Specific GravitySpecific Gravity
 Specific gravity of RBC is 1.092- 1.101
Packet Cell VolumePacket Cell Volume
 It is 45% of blood and 55% of plasma
Suspension StabilitySuspension Stability
 During circulation RBC remain suspended uniformly in the
blood. This property is called suspension stability.

22. Functions ofFunctions of
RBCRBC
RespiratoryRespiratory
Acid baseAcid base
balancebalance
Maintain theMaintain the
viscosityviscosity

23. ERYTHROPOIESISERYTHROPOIESIS

24. HemopoiesisHemopoiesis
 Hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis is the process of origin development &
maturation of all blood cells.
o Erythrocyte : Erythropoiesis
o Leukocyte : leucopoiesis
o Thrombocyte : thrombopoiesis

25. DefinitionDefinition
It is the process of the origin, development &
maturation of erythrocytes.

26. Sites ofSites of
erythropoiesiserythropoiesis
IN FETAL LIFE
Mesoblastic stage Hepatic stage Myeloid stage
During 1st two month of
intrauterine life,
From 3rd month of
intrauterine life
Third trimester
The RBC are produced
from mesenchyme of yolk
sac
The liver is the main organ
that produce RBCs.
Spleen & lymphoid organ
are also involved in
erythropoiesis
The RBC production from
red bone marrow and
liver
In newborn babies, children & adults
RBC are produced only from red bone marrow
1) Up to age of 20 years RBC are produced from all bones
2) After age of 20 years RBC produced from membranous bone (vertibra, sternum,
ribs, scapula, illiac bone & skull bone)

28. Process ofProcess of erythropoiesiserythropoiesis
Stem cellsStem cells :-
 Stem cells are the primary cells capable of self-renewal and
differentiating into specilized cells.
 Hemopoitic stem cells are the primitive cells in the bone
marrow form blood cell.
 These cells in the bonemarrow is called uncommitted
pluripotent hemopoietic stem cells (PHSC)
 In adults, only a few number of these cells are present
 Best source of these cells are umbilical cord blood.

29.  When the cells are design to form blood cell, the uncommitted
PHSCs are called committed PHSCs
Committed
PHSCs
Lymphoid
stem cells
Lymphocyte NK cells
Colony
forming
blastocytes
Myeloid cells

31. Changes duringChanges during erythropoiesiserythropoiesis
 Cells of CFU-E pass through different
stages & finally become the mature
RBCs
 During these stages four important
changes are noticed.
1. Reduction in size of cell (from the diameter
of 22-7.2µ)
2. Disappearance of nucleoli & nucleus
3. Appearance of hemoglobin
4. Change in the staining properties of the
cytoplasm

32. Stages ofStages of erythropoiesiserythropoiesis
Proerythroblast (megaloblast)-
1. It is the first cell derived from CFU-E.
2. It is very large in size with a diameter of about 20µ.
3. Nucleus is large & occupies the cell completely.
4. Synthesis of hemoglobin start in this stage.
5. However appearance of hemoglobin occur only in
intermediate normoblast.

33. EarlyEarly normoblastnormoblast--
1. The early normoblast is little smaller than proerythroblast
(15µ)
2. In the nucleus the nucleoli disappear.
3. The cytoplasm is basophilic in nature so, this is also called
basophilic erythroblast.

34. IntermediateIntermediate normoblastnormoblast
1. Cell is smaller than early normoblast (10-12µ)
2. The nucleus is still present.
3. But the chromatin network shows further condensation
4. The hemoglobin start appearing
5. Because of the presence of hemoglobin, it stains with both
acidic as well as basic stains
6. It is also called polychromophilic or polychromstic
erythroblast.

35. LateLate normoblastnormoblast
1. Diameter of the cell 8-10µ
2. Nucleus become very small with very much condensed
chromatin network
3. It is known as as ink spot nucleus.
4. Quantity of hemoglobin become increases,
5. Cytoplasm become acidophilic
6. The nucleus disintigrate & disappear, this process is know as
pyknosis.

36. ReticulocyteReticulocyte
1. Immature RBC, it is slightly larger than mature RBC
2. The cytoplasm content their reticular network or reticulum.
3. Due to this reticular network network, the cell is called
reticulocyte.
4. Reticulocyte stain with supravital stain
5. In new born babies, the reticulocyte count is 2% to 6% of
RBCs.

37. Mature erythrocyteMature erythrocyte
1. Reticular network disappear and the cell become mature RBC
2. Attains a biconcave shape, size of 7.2µ
3. The mature RBC without hemoglobulin but without nucleus
4. It require 7 days for development and maturation of RBC
from proerythroblast.
5. It require 5 days upto the stages of reticulocyte
6. 2 days more to become the mature RBC.

40. Factors necessary forFactors necessary for erythropoiesiserythropoiesis
Development & maturation of erythrocytes require
variety of factor, which are classified into 3
categories:
General factorsGeneral factors
Maturation factorsMaturation factors
Factors necessary for
hemoglobin formation
Factors necessary for
hemoglobin formation

41. General FactorsGeneral Factors
General factors necessary for erythropoietin are -
Erythropoietin (erythrocyte stimulation factor)
Thyroxine
Hemopoietic growth factor (interleukin & stem
cells)
Vitamins (vitamin B, C, D, E)

42. Erythropoietin promotes following processErythropoietin promotes following process
Production of proerythroblast
from CFU-E of the bone
marrow
Development of proerythroblast
into mature RBC through the
several stages
Release of matured erythrocytes
into blood

44. ThyroxineThyroxine--
 Being a general metabolic hormone, thyroxine acelerate the process
of erythropoiesis at many levels
 So, hyperthyroidism & polycythemia are very common
HemopoieticHemopoietic growth factorgrowth factor--
 Hemopoietic growth factors or growth inducers are the interleukins
& stem cell factor.
 Generally these factors induce the proliferation of PHSCs.
 Interleukins involved in erythropoiesis
 Interlrukins-3 (T- cells)
 Interleukins-6 (T-cells, endothelial cells)
 Interleukins-11 (Osteoblast)

45. VitaminsVitamins
Vitamin B Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E
Its deficiency
causes anemia &
pellagra (disease
characterized by
skin lesions,
diarrhea,
weakness,
nervousness and
dementia.)
Its deficiency causes
anemia & scurvy
(ancient disease
characterized by
impaired collagen
synthesis resulting in
rough skin, bleeding
gums, loosening of
teeth, poor wound
healing, bone pain,
lethargy and
emotional changes)
Its deficiency
causes anemia
& rickets (bone
disease)
Its deficiency
causes anemia
& malnutrition.

46. Maturation factorsMaturation factors
Vitamin B₁₂, intrinsic factor, folic acid are necessary for the
maturation of RBC
VitaminVitamin B₁₂B₁₂--
SOURCE ACTION
It is called extrinsic factor mostly
obtained from diet.
It stored mostly in liver and small
quantity in muscle. When necessary it
transport to the bone marrow to
promote maturation of RBC
It is also produced in the large
intestine in the intestinal flora
Essential for the synthesis of DNA of
RBC. Its deficiency leads to failure of
maturation of the cell & reduction in
the cell division.
Deficiency of this vitamin causes
pernicious anemia. So it is called anti
pernicious factor.

47. Intrinsic factor of castleIntrinsic factor of castle
1. Intrinsic factor of castle produced in gastric mucosa by the
parietal cell of gastric glands.
2. It is essential for the absorption of vitamin B₁₂ from intestine.
3. In the absence of intrinsic factor vitamin B₁₂ is not absorbed
from intestine.
4. This leads to pernicious anemia.
Deficiency Of Intrinsic Factor occurs in-
 severe gastritis
 ulcer
 gastrectomy

48. Folic AcidFolic Acid
It require for the synthesis of DNA
In the absence of folic acid, the synthesis of
DNA decreases causing failure of maturation
leads to megaloblastic anemia.

49. Factors necessary for hemoglobinFactors necessary for hemoglobin
formationformation
Various materials are essential for the maturation
of RBCs.
First class protein & amino acids
Iron
Copper
Cobalt
Vitamins- vitamin C, Rivoflavin, Nicotinic acid &
pyridoxine.

50. Lifespan Of RBCLifespan Of RBC
 Average lifespan of RBC is 120 days.
 After this stage senile RBC was destroyed in
reticuloendothelial system.
Determination of lifespan of RBC-
 Life span of RBC determined by radioisotop method.
 RBC are tagged with radioactive substances like
radioactive iron & radioactive chromium.
 Life of RBC is determined by studying the rate of loss of
radio-active cell from circulation

51. Red cell formation & destructionRed cell formation & destruction

52. Fate of RBCFate of RBC
Destruction of RBC (in
spleen)
Relese of hemoglobin
Iron + apoferritin
Ferritin
Stored &reused
Globin
Protein pool
Stored and reused
Porphyrin
Bilirubin
Excreated

53. HEMOGLOBINHEMOGLOBIN
 Hemoglobin is the iron containing coloring matter of RBC
 It is a chromoprotein forming 95% of dry weight &30-34%
wet weight.
 Normal hemoglobin content-
 At birth- 25g/dl
 After 3month- 20g/dl
 After 1 year- 17g/dl
 In adult male- 15g/dl
 In adult female- 14.5g/dl

55. Quantity of Hemoglobin in the CellsQuantity of Hemoglobin in the Cells--
 Red blood cells have the ability to concentrate hemoglobin in
the cell fluid up to about 34 grams in each 100 milliliters of
cells.
 One gram of pure hemoglobin is capable of combining with
1.34 milliliters of oxygen.

56. Function ofFunction of
HemoglobinHemoglobin
ContentContent
Transport of
respiratory
gases
Transport of
oxygen by
oxygenation
Transport of
carbon dioxide
Buffer action
To maintain
acid base
balance

57. Structure of HemoglobinStructure of Hemoglobin
 It is a conjugated protein consist of iron containing pigment
 The protein part is globin and iron containing pigment is heme
 Heme is also form a part of the structure of myoglobin &
neuroglobin
HemoglobinHemoglobin
Iron Porphyrin Globin

58. Structural DifferenceStructural Difference
 In adult hemoglobin, the
globin contains two ∝-
chains and two β- chains
 In fetal hemoglobin, there
are two ∝-chains and
two γ-chains instead of β-
chains .
 Functionally fetal
hemoglobin has more
affinity for oxygen than the
adult hemoglobin

60. Abnormal HemoglobinAbnormal Hemoglobin
 It is a genetic defect that results in abnormal structure of the
globin chains of the hemoglobin molecule.
 Most of the mutation do not produced any serious problem,
occasionally few mutation result in some disorder
1. Hemoglobinopathies
2. Hemoglobin in thalassemia in related disorders.

61. HemoglobinopathiesHemoglobinopathies
 It is a genetic disorder caused by abnormal polypeptide chains
of hemoglobin.
 Some of hemoglobinopathies are-
 Hemoglobin S
 Hemoglobin C
 Hemoglobin E
 Hemoglobin M

62. Hemoglobin SHemoglobin S
It is found in sickle cell
anemia. In this, ∝-chains are
normal and β- chains are
abnormal
Hemoglobin CHemoglobin C
The β- chains are abnormal.
It is found in people with
hemoglobin C disease, which
is characterized by mild
hemolytic anemia and
splenomegaly.
HB CHB C
AlphaAlpha AlphaAlpha Beta SBeta S Beta CBeta C

63. Sickle cell DiseaseSickle cell Disease
 Hemoglobin S is responsible for most type of sickle cell
disease, a condition in which the red blood cells have a cresent
or sickle shape
 It is caused by a point mutation in the β- chains of
hemoglobin, causeing the hydrophilic amino acid glutamic
acid to be replaced with the hydrophobic amino acid valine at
the sixth position.

64. Hemoglobin EHemoglobin E
Here also the β- chains are abnormal it is present in
the people with hemoglobin disease which is also
characterized by mild hemolytic anemia and
splenomegaly.

65. Hemoglobin MHemoglobin M
 It is the abnormal hemoglobin present in
the form of methemoglobin.
 It occurs due to mutation of genes of both
in ∝ and β- chains resulting in abnormal
replacement of amino acids.
 It is present in babies affected by
hemoglobin M disease or blue baby
syndrome

66. Hemoglobin in Thalassemia &
related disorder
 In thalassemia, different types of abnormal hemoglobin's are
present.
 The polypeptide chains are decreased, absent or abnormal.
 In ∝ thalassemia the ∝ chains are affected & in beta
thalassemia beta chains are affected.
 Some of the abnormal hemoglobin's found in thalassemia are
hemoglobin G, H and I.

67. White Blood CellsWhite Blood Cells
 White blood cells (WBCs) are the colorless and nucleated
formed elements of blood
 Leuko is derived from the Greek word leukos = white
 Compare to RBCs WBCs are larger in size and lesser in
number
 Their role in defense mechanism of body & protect the body
from invading organisms by acting like soldiers.

68. ClassificationClassification
 Some of WBCs have
granules in the cytoplasm
 Based on the presence or
absence of granules in the
cytoplasm, the leukocyte
are classified into two
groups
 Granulocytes
 agranulocytes
WBCs
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
basophils
Agranulocytes
Monocytes
Lymphocytes

69. MORPHOLOGY OF WBCsMORPHOLOGY OF WBCs

70. NeutrophilsNeutrophils
1. which are also known as polymorphs have fine or small
granules in the cytoplasm.
2. These granules take acidic and basic stains, when stained with
Leishman’s stain.
3. Nucleus is multilobed. The number of lobe depend upon the
age of cell.
4. The diameter of cell is 10-12µ.

71. Eosinophils
Eosinophil have course granules in the cytoplasm which
stains pink or red with eosin
Nucleus is bilobed and spectacle-shaped.
Diameter of the cell is10-14µ
BasophilsBasophils-
Basophil also has course granules in the cytoplasm.
The granules stain purple blue with methylene blue.
Nucleus is bilobed
Diameter of the cell is 8-10µ

72. MonocytesMonocytes
 They are the largest leukocyte with a diameter of 14-18µ.
 The cytoplasm is clear without granules.
 Nucleus is round, oval and horseshoe shaped, bean shaped or
kidney shaped.
 Nucleus is placed in centre in the cell or pushed to one side &
a large amount of cytoplasm is seen

73. Lymphocytes
• Like monocytes the lymphocytes do not have granules in the
cytoplasm.
• Nucleus is oval bean shaped or kidney shaped.
• Nucleus occupy the whole of the cytoplasm, a rim of
cytoplasm may or may not be seen.

74. Diameter & Lifespan of WBCDiameter & Lifespan of WBC
WBC Diameter
(µ)
Lifespan
(days)
Neutrophils 10-12 2-5
Eosinophils 10-14 7-12
Basophils 8-10 12-15
Monocytes 14-18 2-5
Lymphocytes 7-12 ½-1
Normal WBC count-
Total WBC count: 4000-1100/cu mm

75. Properties of WBCProperties of WBC
DiapedesisDiapedesis- It is the process by
which the leukocytes squeeze through
the narrow blood vessel.
AmeboidAmeboid movementmovement--
neutrophil monocyte & lymphocyte
show amebic movement, characterized
by protrusion of the cytoplasm &
change in the shape

76. Chemotaxis-
chemotaxix is the attraction of WBC towards the injured
tissue by chemical substances relese at the site of injury
Phagocytosis-
neutrophils & monocytes engulf the foreign bodies by
means of phagocytosis

77. Functions of WBCFunctions of WBC
WBC Functions
neutrophil Destruction of microorganism
Anti-microbial action
Anti-inflammatory action
Wound healing
chemotaxis
Eosinophil Destruction of worms bacteria and tumor
cell
Acceleration of inflammatory response
Destruction of invading organism
Basophil Prevention of intravascular blood clotting
Destruction of microorganism
Acceleration of inflammatory response
Monocyte Aggregation of platelet by platelet
aggravating factor
Chemotaxis by chemokinin
Formation of CF blastocyte

78. WBC Functions
T-Lymphocyte Acceleration of inflammatory
response destruction of organism
Activation of T-cell
Stimulation of phagocytic action
chemotaxis
B- lymphocytes Destruction of invading organism
Necrosis of tumor
Activation of immune response
chemotaxis

79. Variation in WBC CountVariation in WBC Count
• Leukocytosis- Increase total WBC count
• Leukopenia- Decrese total WBC count
• Granulocytosis- Abnormal increase in the number of granulocytes
• Granulocytopenia- Abnormal reduction in the number of
granulocytes

80. PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONSPHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
1.1. AgeAge- in infant 20,000/cu mm, in children 10,000-15,000/cu
mm and in adult 4,000-11,000/cu mm
2.2. SexSex- slightly more in male than in female
3.3. DiurnalDiurnal variationvariation-- minimal in early morning & maximum in
afternoon
4.4. ExerciseExercise-- Increases slightly
5.5. SleepSleep- Decreases
6.6. EmotionalEmotional conditioncondition likelike anxietyanxiety-- increases
7.7. PregnancyPregnancy && MenstruationMenstruation-- increases

81. PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONPATHOLOGICAL VARIATION
•• LeukocytosisLeukocytosis
It occurs in the condition such as
Infections
Allergy
Common cold
Tuberculosis
Glandular fever

82. Leukemia
• Leukemia is the condition which is characterised by abnormal
& uncontroled increase in leukocyte count more than
1,000,000/cu mm
• It is also called blood cancer

83. LeukopeniaLeukopenia
It occurs in the following pathological condition-
 Anaphylactic shock
 Cirrhosis of liver
 Disorders of spleen
 Pernicious anemia
 Typhoid & Para-typhoid
 Viral infection

84. Variation in Different leukocyte countVariation in Different leukocyte count
Disorders variation Conditions
neutrophilia Increased neutrophilic count 1. Acute infections
2. Metabolic disorders
3. Injection of vaccine
4. Poisoning by insect
venom
5. After acute hemorrhage
Neutropenia Decrease in neutrophil count 1. Bone marrow disorder
2. Tuberculosis
3. Typhoid
4. Autoimmune disease
Eosinophilia Increase in eosinophil count 1. Allergic condition like
asthama
2. Blood
parasitism(malaria,
filariasis)
Eosinopenia Decrese in eosinophil count 1. Cushing syndrome
2. Bacterial infection
3. Stress
4. Steroids, epinephrin

85. Disorders Variation Conditions
Basophilia Increase basophil count 1. Small pox
2. Chicken pox
basopenia Decrease basophil count 1. Urticaria
2. Stress
3. Prolonged administration of
chemotherapy & radiotherapy
Monocytosis Increase monocyte count 1. Tuberculosis
2. Syphilis
3. Malaria
4. Kala-azar
Monocytopenia Decrease monocyte count Prolonged use of prednisone
lymphocytosis Increase in lymphocyte count 1. Diptheria
2. Infectiopus hepatitis
3. Mumps
4. Malnutrition
5. Rickets
6. syphilis

87. Factor Necessary forFactor Necessary for LeukopoiesisLeukopoiesis
Leukopoiesis is influenced by hemopoietic growth factors
&colony stimulation factor.
HemopoieticHemopoietic Growth FactorGrowth Factor
Erythropoietin (erythrocyte stimulation factor)
Thyroxine
Hemopoietic growth factor (interleukin & stem
cells)
Vitamins (vitamin B C D E)

88. Colony stimulation factorColony stimulation factor-- colony stimulation factors
(CSF)are proteins which cause the formation of colony
forming blastocyte. They are 3 types-
1.1. GranulocyteGranulocyte -- CSFCSF secreted by monocyte & endothelial
cell
2.2. GranulocyteGranulocyte --monocytemonocyte--CSFCSF secreted by monocyte
endothelial cell & lymphocyte
3.3. MonocyteMonocyte--CSFCSF secreted by monocyte & endothelial cell

89. PLATELETSPLATELETS
• Platelets or thrombocytes are the formed elements of
blood
• Platelets are small colorless, non-nucleated &
moderately refractive bodies
• These formed element of blood consider as fragment of
cytoplasm
Half life: 4 days

90. Morphology of PlateletsMorphology of Platelets
Normal size Normal shape Normal structure
Diameter- 2.5µ
(2-4 µ)
Volume- 7.2 cu
µ
Normal shape-spherical
or rod shaped,& become
oval and disk shaped
when inactivated
Sometimes platelets are
dumbbell shape, comma
shape, or any other
unusual shape.
non-nucleated,but cytoplasm
content other organelles such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, micro
vessels, filament and granules.
Cytoplasm also contains some
chemical substances like protein
enzyme hormonal substances.

91. Structure & CompositionStructure & Composition
• Platelet is constitute by-
Cell membrane / surface membrane
Microtubules
Cytoplasm

92. Microscopic structures of plateletMicroscopic structures of platelet

93. Cell membraneCell membrane
• Cell membrane of platelet is 6nm thick
• Cell membrane of platelet contains lipid in form of
– phospholipids,
– Cholesterol,
– glycolipid,
– carbohydrate as
– Glycocalyx,
– Glycoprotein and protein

94. MicrotubulesMicrotubules
• Microtubules form a ring around cytoplasm below the
cell membrane
• It is made up of polymerized protein called tubulin.
• These tubules provide structural support for the
inactivated platelets to maintain the disk like shape.

95. CytoplasmCytoplasm
Cytoplasm contains proteins enzymes and other substances.
 Proteins-
 Contractile proteins
 Von willebrand factor
 Fibrin stabilizing factor
 Platelet derived growth factor
 Vitro nectin
 Thrombospondin
 Enzymes-
 Adenosin triphosphate
 Enzyme necessary for synthesis of prostaglandin

96.  Hormonal substance-
 Adrenalin
 5-hydroxytryptamin (5-HT, serotonin)
 Histamin
 Other chemical substances
 Glycogen
 Substances like blood group antigens
 Inorganic substances, like calcium, copper

97.  Platelet granules
 Alpha granules
 Dense granules
Alpha granules Dense granules
Clotting factors: fibrinogen, V and XIII
platelet derived growth factor
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Basic fibroblast growth factor
Endostatin
thrombospondin
Neucleotides
Serotonin
Phospholipids
Calcium
lysosomes
Substances present in platelet granules

98. Normal count of PlateletsNormal count of Platelets
• Normal platelet count is 2,50,000/cu mm of
blood
• It ranges between 2,00,000-4,00,ooo/cu mm

99. Functions of
platelets
Role in blood
clotting
Role in clot
retraction
Hemostasis
Role in repair of
ruptured blood
vessel
Role in
defensive
mechanism

100. Reaction involved in hemostasis

102. Activators or inhibitors of PlateletsActivators or inhibitors of Platelets
Activators of platelets Inhibitors of platelet
Collagen which is exposed during
damage of blood vessels
Von Willebrand factor
Thromboxane A2
Platelet activating factor
Thrombin
ADP
Calcium ions
convulxin: purified protein from snake
venom
Nitric oxide
Clotting factors : II, IX, X, XI and XII
Prostacycline
Nucleotidase which breakdown the
ADP.

103. Physiological variationsPhysiological variations
• Age- less in infant (1,50,000-2,00,000/cu mm) & reaches
normal level at 3rd month after birth.
• Sex- No difference in platelet count between male & females.
(in female reduced during menstruation)
• After meals- platelet count increase

104. Pathological VariationsPathological Variations
• Thrombocytopenia-
 Decrese in count less than
150,000/cu mm
 Glanzmann’s Thrombasthenia
 Thrombocythemia
 Carcinoma
 Chronic leukemia
 Hodgkin’s disease
 Bone marrow depression
 Acute leukemia
 Infection
 Toxaemia, septicemia and uremia

105.  To understand neutrophil migration from BM, they studied the
vascular system of murine long bones.
 Here, in a mouse model, they show that hundredshundreds ofof
capillariescapillaries originate in BM, traverse cortical bone
perpendicularly along the shaft and connect to the periosteal
circulation.
 Structures similar to these TCVs also exist in human limb
bones.

106.  TCVs express arterial or venous markers and transport
neutrophils.
 Furthermore, over 80% of arterial and 59% of venous blood
passes through TCVs.
 TCVs are a central component of the closed circulatory system in
long bones and may represent an important route for immune cell
export from BM.

107. ReferencesReferences
 K sembulingam ‘Essential of medical physiology 51-159
 Prof. C. P. Baveja, Textbook of Microbiology for dental
student.
 Anil govindrao ghom, textbook of oral medicine 853-855.
 Anika Grüneboom et al, A network of trans-cortical
capillaries as mainstay for blood circulation in long bones
 Kim E. Barrett, PhD ‘Ganong’s Review of Medical
Physiology’521-554
 Arthur C. Guyton,textbook of medical physiology 419-428

108. ThankThank
youyou