I. Conversions related to organic reagents and functional groups include reactions of alkyl halides, aryl halides, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and derivatives, and alkyl and aryl amines.
II. Key reactions involve substitution, elimination, oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, dehydration, decarboxylation and other functional group interconversions.
III. Reagents used include strong acids and bases, oxidizing and reducing agents, halogens, organometallic reagents, and other common organic reagents.
Benzene has 6π electrons delocalized in 6p orbitals that overlap above and below the plane of the ring. Because benzene’s six pie electrons satisfy Huckel’s rule, benzene is especially stable. Reaction that keep the aromatic ring intact are therefore favoured
AQA A-Level Chemistry New Spec: EquilibriaJonti Cole
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on Equilibria. Designed for the new Exam Series of June, but relevant for all series and exam boards. Topics covered: Industrial equilibria, factors affecting equilibria, le chatelier's principle, changing conditions of an equilibrium and the effect of a catalyst.
Benzene has 6π electrons delocalized in 6p orbitals that overlap above and below the plane of the ring. Because benzene’s six pie electrons satisfy Huckel’s rule, benzene is especially stable. Reaction that keep the aromatic ring intact are therefore favoured
AQA A-Level Chemistry New Spec: EquilibriaJonti Cole
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on Equilibria. Designed for the new Exam Series of June, but relevant for all series and exam boards. Topics covered: Industrial equilibria, factors affecting equilibria, le chatelier's principle, changing conditions of an equilibrium and the effect of a catalyst.
The concept of equivalence points (EP) runs like a golden thread through acid-base theory and applications. There are different types of equivalence points. This article provides a classification of EPs and semi-EPs. This is done for the general case of N-protic acids (based on simple mathematical equations).
B. Sc. Part - I (Sem-II) Unit-IV (A) Phenols by Dr Pramod R Padolepramod padole
A) PHENOLS: Methods of formations a) from aniline & b) from cumene. Acidic character, Reaction of Phenols- a) Carboxylation (Kolbe’s reaction), b) Fries Rearrangement, c) Claisen Rearrengement and d) Reimer – Tiemann reaction.
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
Oxidation reactions in chemical engineering. Oxidation state. Oxidation state changes. Identify the element oxidized . Oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
Iron with hydrochloric acid . Zinc and copper. Aluminum and manganate. Cyanide and manganate. Production of ammonia from nitrite.
Balancing Oxidation Reduction Equations. The sulfite ion concentration present in wastewater from a papermaking plant.
Oxidizing and reducing agents
To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an
equiconvex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable
object needle
The concept of equivalence points (EP) runs like a golden thread through acid-base theory and applications. There are different types of equivalence points. This article provides a classification of EPs and semi-EPs. This is done for the general case of N-protic acids (based on simple mathematical equations).
B. Sc. Part - I (Sem-II) Unit-IV (A) Phenols by Dr Pramod R Padolepramod padole
A) PHENOLS: Methods of formations a) from aniline & b) from cumene. Acidic character, Reaction of Phenols- a) Carboxylation (Kolbe’s reaction), b) Fries Rearrangement, c) Claisen Rearrengement and d) Reimer – Tiemann reaction.
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
Oxidation reactions in chemical engineering. Oxidation state. Oxidation state changes. Identify the element oxidized . Oxidation and reduction half-reactions.
Iron with hydrochloric acid . Zinc and copper. Aluminum and manganate. Cyanide and manganate. Production of ammonia from nitrite.
Balancing Oxidation Reduction Equations. The sulfite ion concentration present in wastewater from a papermaking plant.
Oxidizing and reducing agents
To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an
equiconvex lens (made from a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable
object needle
Alcohol, phenol, ether are classes of organic compounds which find wide usage in a broad range of industries as well as for domestic purposes. Alcohol is formed when a saturated carbon atom is bonded to a hydroxyl (-OH) group. Phenol is formed when a hydrogen atom in a benzene molecule is replaced by the -OH group.
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups. A compound containing a carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound.
Organic Chemistry: Carbonyl Compounds and Nitrogen CompoundsIndra Yudhipratama
Organic Chemistry: Carbonyl Compounds and Nitrogen Compounds
Discussing nucleophilic addition on carbonyl discussion and reactions on carboxylic acid and its derivates. Also a brief description about amino acids and protein structures
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
Preparation, reactions, Acidity, effect of substituents on acidity, structure and uses of carboxylic acid and identification tests for carboxylic acid, amide and ester
Hydroboration-oxidation, Addition with alkenes like Hydroxylation, Hypo-Halou...Einstein kannan
It includes three parts.
The first part consists of hydroxylation of alkenes and alkynes with KMnO4, OsO4, and Per acids with examples.
The second part consists of hypo-halous-acid addition in alkenes and cyclo alkenes with examples.
The third part consists of hydroboration oxidation in alkenes and alkynes by Anti-Markovnikov rule and CSIR questions.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Unveiling the Energy Potential of Marshmallow Deposits.pdf
Organic reagents and Reaction charts.pdf
1. ORGANIC REAGENTS
S.No. Reagent Function
1 PCl3, PBr3, PI3 Alcohols into Alkyl halides
2 SoCl2, PCl5 Alcohols into Alkyl chlorides &
Carboxylic acids into Acid Chlorides
3 HCl/ZnCl2,HBr,HI Alcohols into alkyl halides
4 Cl2/Fe or FeCl3 Cl group substituting on Benzene
5 NaNO2 /HCl 0-50
C Diazotisation
6 CuCl,CuBr,CuCN,KI,H2O,
H3PO2
Diazonium Cholride into Chlor Benzene,
Bromo Benzene, Benzo nitrile, Iodo
Benzene , Phenol,Benzene respectively
7 HBF4 or NaBF4 Diazonium Chloride into Floro Benzene
8 AgF or Hg2F2 or SbF3 or
CoF2
Alkyl halides into alkyl florides
9 Na / dry ether Alkyl halides into alkanes
10 NaOH 623/443/368K Chloro benzene to phenol
11 Br2 /FeBr3 Bromination of Benzene
12 Cl2 /FeCl3 Chlorination of Benzene
13 CH3Cl /AlCl3 alkylation of benzene and its derivatives
14 CH-CO-Cl /AlCl3 Acylation on benzene
15 H2SO4 /HNO3 Nitration of benzene
16 (CHCO)2O /AlCl3 O – Acylation of Phenol
17 H2SO4 Sulphonation on Benzene
18 H2O/ H2SO4 alkenes into alcohols
Aq KOH Alkyl halide into alcohol
19 BH3 /H2O2 /OH-
Alkenes into alcohols (Anti
Markownikoff product)
20 NaBH4/ LiAlH4(LAH) Aldehydes, ketones, acids into alcohols,
Nito & Cynides , Isocyanides into amines
21 H2/ Ni or H2/Pd reduction of aldehydes, ketones and
cynides
22 RMgX/H3O+
Aldehydes, ketones into alcohls
23 O2/H+
Cumene to phenol
24 Na Alcohol or phenol into Sodium
alkoxide/Phenoxide
25 (CHCO)2O/ CH-CO-Cl O acylation on phenol or N acylation on
Aneline or amine
26 Conc.H2SO4/443K Conversion of primary alcohols into
Alkenes
27 Conc.H2SO4/410K Conversion of alcohols into Ethers
28 85% H3PO4 / 440K Secondary alcohol into alkene
29 20% H3PO4/358K Tertiary alcohol into alkene
Alcoholic KOH Alkyl halide into alkene
ORGANIC REAGENTS
30 CrO3/KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7
in acidic medium
oxidation of alcohols into acids
31 Cu /573k dehydrogenation of alcohols gives 10
alcohols into aldehydes and 20
alcohols
into ketones & 30
alcohos into alkenes
32 Dil. HNO3 Mono nitration of Phenol
33 Conc.HNO3 tri nitration of phenol
34 Br2 /H2O tri bromination of phenol
35 Br2 /Cs2 mono bromination of phenol
36 NaOH /CO2 Phenol to salicilic acid
37 CHCl3 /NaOH Phenol to salcilaldehyde
38 Zn dust Phenol to Benzene
39 Na2Cr2O7 /H2SO4 or air Phenol to Benzo quinone
40 Zn/Cr2O3 200to 300 atm
573 – 673K
CO & H into methanol
41 Invertase Sucrose into Glucose or Fructose
42 Zymase Glucose or Fructose into ethanol
43 HI Ether into alcohol & alkyl halide
44 PCC alcohol to aldehyde
45 Pd /BaSO4,H2 acid chloride into aldehyde
46 SnCl2/HCl/H3O+
Cyanides into aldehydes
47 AlH(i-Bu)2/H2O Cyanides into aldehydes
48 DIBAL-H/H2O Esters into aldehydes
49 CrO2Cl2/H2O Toluene to aldehyde
50 CrO3 /(CH3CO)2O Toluene into Benzaldehyde
51 Cl2/hv Chlorination on alkyl group of Benzene or
alkane
52 CO, HCl anhydrous AlCl3 Benzene to Benzaldehyde
53 (CH3)2Cd acid chloride into ketones
54 RMgX/H3O+
Cyanides into ketones
55 HCN Carbonyl compound into cyanohydrin
56 NaHSO3 addition to aldehyde and ketone
57 H2NOH carbonyl compound into oxime
58 H2N-NH2 carbonyl compound into hydrazone
59 H2N-NH-Ph carbonyl compound into Phenyl
hydrazone
60 2,4DNP carbonyl compound into 2,4 dinitro
phynyl hydrazone
61 H2N-NH-CO-CH3 carbonyl compound into semi carbazide
62 ROH/HCl Aldehydes & ketones into hemiacetal and
acetal
63 HO-CH2-CH2-OH/HCl Aldehyde or ketone into ethelene glycol
2. ORGANIC REAGENTS
ketone
64 Zn-Hg/HCl carbonyl compound into alkane
65 H2N-NH2 /KOH carbonyl compound into alkane
66 KMnO4/OH-
/ K2Cr2O7
/H2SO4 or HNO3
Ketones into mixture of carboxylic acids
on prolonged oxidation
67 (Ag(NH3)2)NO3+NaOH Tollen’
s test
68 Cu(OH)2 Fehiling’
s test
69 NaOH+I2 Iodoform
70 NaOH or Ba(OH)2 aldal condensation
71 Conc KOH or NaOH Cannizaro’
s reaction
72 KMnO4 /KOH Toluene/alkyl Benzene into Benzoic Acid
73 H2O/H+
Cyanides into carboxylic acids, amides
into carboxylic acids, esters into
carboxylic acis and alcohols, acid
chlorides or anhydrides into carboxylic
acids
74 NaOH Saponificaiton of ester, acid into salt of
acid
75 Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 Carboxylic acid test
76 P4O10 or P2O5 Dehydration of acids into anhydride,
amides into nitriles
77 ROH/conc H2SO4 Caroxylic acids into esters
78 PCl3, SoCl2, PCl5 Carboxylic acids into acid chlorides
79 NH3 heating Carboxylic acids into amides
80 NaOH/CaO Decarboxylation (acids into alkanes)
81 LiAlH4 Carboxylic acids into alcohols, amides
into amines
82 Cl2 /red.P4 HVZ reaction
83 Sn /HCl or Fe /HCl, H2/Pd Reduction of nitro compounds into
amines
84 NH3 Alkyl halides into amines
85 H2/ Ni or H2/Pd LiAlH4 Amides into cyanindes
86 KOH/R-X Phthalamide into amine
87 NaOH /Br2 Hoffman bromamide, amide into amine
with one ‘C’less
88 KOH,CHCl3 Amines into Carbyl amines
89 NaNO2/HCl 10
aliphatic amines into alcohols
90 NaNO2/HCl 0 – 50
C Aniline into diazonium chloride
91 C6H5SO2Cl Distinguishing 10
,20
& 30
amines
92 Br2/H2O Aneline into tri bromo aniline
93 Br2/ CH-CO-Cl
/(CHCO)2O
Aniline into Bromo Aniline
5. II: Conversions related to aryl halides
–
SCHEME
SCHEME – III: Conversions related to alcohols
6. SCHEME – IV: Conversion related to phenols – I
SCHEME – V: Conversion related to phenols – II
7. SCHEME – VI: Conversion related to aldehydes
SCHEME – VI: Conversion related to carboxylic acids
8. SCHEME – VII: Conversion related to alkyl amines SCHEME – VIII: Conversion related to aryl amines
ASCENDING SERIES
(1) By Wurtz Reaction
(2) By Using Cyanide
9. (3) By using Grignard's Reagent
(4) By using Sodium Alkylnides
This reaction is used for terminal alkynes.
(2) Decarboxylation reaction
(1) Hoffmann Bromamide reaction
DESCENT OF SERIES
10. (Hydrolysis)
KOH test
Aq
a)
Test
SNo.
Ethylene Dichloride (Vicinal)
vs
II. Ethylidene chloride (Geminal)
test
OH
4
NH
b)
3
AgNO
Dil
a)
I
–
R
Br
–
R
Cl
–
R
Test
SNo.
alkyl or aryl)
R
I (
–
R
vs
Br
–
R
vs
Cl
–
I. R
Test
SNo.
.
V
OH)
–
CH
–
3
CH
having
(for alcohols
Iodoform test
b)
Na metal test
a)
3
CH
–
O
–
3
CH
OH
–
2
CH
–
3
CH
Test
SNo.
(Ether)
3
CH
–
O
–
3
CH
vs
OH (Alcohol)
–
2
CH
–
3
IV. CH
No reaction
test
Carbylamine
a)
OH
3
/CH
4
Cl/CCl
3
CH
3
CHCl
Test
SNo.
OH
3
/CH
4
Cl/CCl
3
CH
vs
3
III. CHCl
11. a) Lucas
Test
(Conc.
HCl +
anhyd
ZnCl2
Turbidity appears on
heating
Turbidity appears
within in 5 – 10
min.
Turbidity appears
spontaneously
No appearance of
turbidity
b) Iodofor
m test
c) Br2
water
test
d) Neutral
FeCl3
Test
e) Litmus
Test
Turns blue litmus red
f)
Victor
Meyer
Test
VI.
SNo. Test
a) Litmus Test Turns blue Litmus to red
b) Neutral FeCl3
test
12. c) Iodoform Test
VII. HCHO vs CH3CHO
SNo. Test HCHO CH3CHO
a) Iodoform test
b)
Liquor
Ammonia Test
VIII.
SNo. Test
CH3CHO
a) Iodoform
test
b) Tollen’s
reagent
(amm.
silver
nitrate)
c) Fehling's
solution
(copper
sulphate +
sodium
potassium
tartarate )
Oxidation is
very difficult
13. IX.
SNo. Test
a) Tollen’s
test
b) Fehling’
s
Solution
test
c) NaHCO
3 test
d) Neutral
FeCl3
test
X.
SNo. Test R – NH2
a) Bromine
water
b) Neutral FeCl3
14. c) Carbylamine
test
d) Azo Dye Text Azo dye formed is
unstable, so cannot be
removed from solution
XI. R – NH2 vs R2NH vs R3N
SNo. Test R – NH2
(1° amine)
R2NH
(2° amine)
R3N
a) Carbylamine
Test
b) Nitrous Acid
Test
c) Hinsberg’s
Test
[Hinsberg’s
Reagent is a
mixture of
(i) Benzene
sulphonyl
chloride,
(ii) KOH, and
(iii) HCl
15. SNo. Test R – NH2
a) Litmus Test No response to litmus Red litmus changes to Blue
b) Carbylamine test
XIII. RNO2 vs RONO
SNo. Test R – NO2 RONO
a) Reduction
(Sn/HCl)
b) NaOH Form’s soluble sodium salt. Readily hydrolysed to give
corresponding alcohol and sodium
nitrite.
XIV. RCN vs RNC
SNo. Test R – NO2 RONO
a) Solubility in
water
Soluble Insoluble
b) Reduction
followed by
nitrous acid
treatment
c) Hydrolysis
d) Heating No effect Alkyl cyanide is formed