6. fenton's reagents
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Fenton's reagent is a solution of hydrogen peroxide and ferrous ion that generates hydroxyl radicals and is used to oxidize organic compounds. It consists of iron(II) sulfate and hydrogen peroxide and causes the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide through a redox cycle to produce hydroxyl and hydroperoxyl radicals. These radicals then engage in secondary reactions to rapidly oxidize contaminants into carbon dioxide and water. Some applications of Fenton's reagent include the hydroxylation of arenes like benzene to phenol, converting barbituric acid to the toxic compound alloxan, and oxidizing glycerol to a mixture of glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone known as glycerose.
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Some PAHs may be associated with certain pollution sources.
PAHs are non- polar organic compounds .
Composed of two or more fused benzene rings.
They are hydrophobic substances.
It has high coefficient octanol-water; generally, with increasing number of benzene rings.
The molecular weight is high .
Decreases their water solubility, biodegradability and volatility, increasing toxicity.
PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – a group of synthetic organic chemicals known as chlorinated hydrocarbons which include any chemical substance of the biphenyl molecule that has been chlorinated to varying degrees.
PCBs have high heat capacity, low conductance, they are inert to acids and alkali, have good solubility in fats, oils and organic solvents, and are explosion-proof.
With chlorine content from 19 to 43 %, the products have a crystalline form, 43–56 % – oil-shaped, 57–69 % – semisolid and resin-shaped, and from 67 to 70 % - crystalline again.
Long-term exposure to PCBs can cause certain cancers and birth defects. It can damage the central nervous system, immune and reproductive systems, and also affect the food chain.
Muhammad usman
The document discusses the phosphorus cycle and transformations of phosphorus within soil. It notes that phosphorus is essential for life but cannot exist as a gas, and its cycle is the slowest. Within soil, microbes play an important role in mineralizing organic phosphorus compounds into a form plants can absorb through enzymes. They also solubilize insoluble phosphates and precipitate phosphorus compounds. The transformations involve acids, gases, chelators and are impacted by pH, calcium, magnesium, iron and aluminum levels.
BIODEGRADATION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
This document discusses several topics related to environmental biotechnology, including organic pollution, biodegradation of halogenated hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, and detergents. It provides details on the sources and impacts of persistent organic pollutants. It also describes various microbial and enzymatic pathways used to biodegrade recalcitrant compounds like PAHs, TCE, DDT, and detergents. Microorganisms like Pseudomonas, Nocardia, and fungi play an important role in the aerobic and anaerobic breakdown of these pollutants.
New microsoft word document
Phenol is the original antiseptic used by Joseph Lister who discovered antiseptics. It works well but is toxic. Phenol derivatives such as trichlorophenol are less toxic and widely used today as antiseptics. Antiseptics are chemical agents that slow or stop microbial growth on external surfaces and help prevent infections. They are commonly used for handwashing, pre-operative skin disinfection, and treating wounds.
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11.polymerization of phenol using free and immobilized horseradish peroxidase
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Hypervalent organo iodines reagents in organic synthesis
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14. liq. ammonia
The document discusses the use of liquid ammonia for organic reductions, where dissolved alkali metals generate solvated electrons that can reduce conjugated double/triple bonds, unsaturated ketones, and aromatic compounds through a mechanism involving radical anions and carbanions. Specific applications covered include the reduction of conjugated dienes, α,β-unsaturated ketones to saturated carbonyls/alcohols, and aromatic compounds (Birch reduction) to 1,4-cyclohexadienes. The role of alcohols in these reductions is also explained.
12. Perbenzoic acid
Perbenzoic acid and related peracids such as m-chloroperbenzoic acid are useful oxidizing agents that can perform epoxidation of alkenes, oxidation of amines and thioethers, and Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones to esters. Perbenzoic acid is prepared in situ by oxidation of benzoic acid with hydrogen peroxide and can carry out stereospecific epoxidation of alkenes through a concerted mechanism involving oxygen addition and proton transfer. Common applications of perbenzoic acid include epoxidation, oxidation of functional groups, and Baeyer-
11. Oso4
Osmium tetroxide (OsO4) is a volatile and toxic compound that is useful for the dihydroxylation of alkenes to form vicinal diols. It is also used in the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation and Lemieux-Johnson oxidation reactions. Some key applications of OsO4 include the dihydroxylation, epoxidation, and oxidation of various organic compounds.
10. Lead tetra acetate
Lead tetra acetate is a powerful oxidizing reagent that can oxidize alcohols to aldehydes and ketones, induce cyclization of saturated alcohols, and undergo decarboxylation or lactonization with carboxylic acids. It is also used for acetoxylation of ketones and dehydrogenation of amines and hydrazines. However, lead tetra acetate is toxic, hygroscopic, and turns brown upon exposure to air, so it must be handled with extreme care in a chemical hood.
9. NBS
N-Bromosuccinimide (NBS) is a source of bromine for radical substitution and electrophilic addition reactions that is easier and safer to handle than bromine. NBS is used for allylic and benzylic brominations, alpha-bromination of carbonyl compounds, and addition reactions to alkenes to form bromohydrins or epoxides. The reactions involve a free radical mechanism initiated by a small amount of bromine radical from NBS.
8. DCC
Dicyclohexyl carbodiimide (DCC) is a dehydrating agent often used to form esters, amides or anhydrides. It is commercially available as a waxy low-melting solid. Some important applications of DCC in organic synthesis include the synthesis of peptides, esters, ethers, thioethers, nitriles, and α,β-unsaturated esters. It is also used in heterocyclization reactions, for example in the synthesis of barbituric acid from malonic acid. DCC reacts with carboxylic acids and alcohols to form activated acylating agents, allowing ester formation. It similarly reacts
7. anh. Aluminium trichloride
Anhydrous aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is a white solid that is an important Lewis acid catalyst. It is commonly used to catalyze Friedel-Crafts reactions and can introduce aldehyde groups or catalyze ene reactions. AlCl3 also catalyzes the addition of bromine to ketones in ether solvent to give 100% yields of bromoketones.
5. Lindlar & adam's catalyst
The document discusses Lindlar's catalyst and Adam's catalyst. Lindlar's catalyst consists of palladium deposited on calcium carbonate and poisoned with lead or sulfur. It is used to selectively hydrogenate alkynes to alkenes without full reduction to alkanes. Adam's catalyst, also known as platinum dioxide PtO2•H2O, is used for hydrogenation, hydrogenolysis, dehydrogenation, and oxidation reactions. It hydrogenates alkenes with syn stereochemistry and is commonly used to reduce ketones to alcohols and nitro compounds to amines. Both catalysts provide selective hydrogenation under mild conditions.
3. NaBH4
Sodium borohydride is a reducing agent used in organic synthesis. It is commonly used to reduce carbonyl groups such as aldehydes and ketones to alcohols. The reduction occurs via a two-step mechanism where the borohydride first adds to the carbonyl carbon, then a proton transfers in a second step. Sodium borohydride is a mild reducing agent and selectively reduces carbonyls over other functional groups. It is preferred over lithium aluminum hydride for carbonyl reductions due to its milder and more controlled reactivity in aqueous conditions.
2. LiAlH4
Lithium aluminium hydride (LAH) is a strong reducing agent that is commonly used to reduce carbonyl groups, esters, amides, nitriles, epoxides, lactones, and haloalkanes/haloarenes. LAH is prepared through the reaction of lithium hydride with aluminum chloride. It is a white solid that reacts violently with water, producing hydrogen gas, so reactions must be performed under anhydrous conditions. The mechanism of LAH involves nucleophilic hydride attack on the carbonyl carbon to form an intermediate tetrahedral structure.
1. Gilman's reagent
Gilman's reagent is a lithium and copper (diorganocopper) compound that can be prepared by adding copper(I) iodide to methyllithium at -78°C. Gilman's reagent is useful for replacing halide groups with organic groups through SN2 reactions. Some applications include 1) 1,4-addition to conjugated enones due to the soft nucleophilicity of the reagent, 2) alkyl cross-coupling reactions with organic halides, and 3) addition to acid chlorides to form ketones.
Engineering chemistry_fuels
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Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
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Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
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With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
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6. fenton's reagents
- 1. Dr. Shivendra Singh UGC-NET-JRF, PhD- IIT Indore Assistant Professor shivendrasngh0@gmail.com Webpage: https://sites.google.com/view/drshivendrasingh/home Youtube: https://bit.ly/2YM0QG0 6. Fenton’s Reagent
- 2. …Fenton’s Reagent Ø Fenton's reagent is a solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) with ferrous ion (typically iron(II)sulfate, FeSO4) as a catalyst that is used to oxidize contaminants or waste waters. Ø Fenton's reagent can be used to destroy organic compounds such as trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene, PCE). Ø It was developed in the 1890s by British Chemist Henry John Horstman Fenton as an analytical reagent. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 3. …Fenton’s Reagent Ø Iron(II) is oxidized by hydrogen peroxide to iron(III), forming a hydroxyl radical and a hydroxide ion in the process. Ø Iron(III) is then reduced back to iron(II) by another molecule of hydrogen peroxide, forming a hydroperoxyl radical and a proton. Ø The net effect is a disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide to create two different oxygen-radical species, with water (H+ + OH−) as a byproduct. Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe3+ + HO• + OH− (1) Fe3+ + H2O2 → Fe2+ + HOO• + H+ (2) 2 H2O2 → HO• + HOO• + H2O (net reaction: 1+2) Reaction (1) was suggested by Haber and Weiss in the 1930s as part of what would become the Haber–Weiss reaction. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 4. …Fenton’s Reagent Ø The free radicals generated by this process then engage in secondary reactions. For example, the hydroxyl is a powerful, non-selective oxidant. Ø Oxidation of an organic compound by Fenton's reagent is rapid and exothermic and results in the oxidation of contaminants to primarily carbon dioxide and water. Ø Iron(II) sulfate is typically used as the iron catalyst. The exact mechanisms of the redox cycle are uncertain. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 5. …Fenton’s Reagent: Applications 1. Fenton's reagent is used in organic synthesis for the hydroxylation of arenes in a radical substitution reaction such as the classical conversion of benzene into phenol. C6H6 + FeSO4 + H2O2 → C6H5OH Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe3+ + HO• + OH− Mechanism: FeSO4 + H2O2
- 6. …Fenton’s Reagent 2. Transformation of barbituric acid into alloxan by hydroxyl radicals J. Pineal Res. 2002; 33:239–247 Barbituric acid is based on a pyrimidine heterocycle. It is the parent compound of barbiturate drugs. Alloxan is a toxic glucose analogue, which selectively destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas (i.e., beta cells) when administered to rodents and many other animal species. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 7. …Fenton’s Reagent 3. Glycerol on oxidation with Fenton’s reagent (H2O2 + FeSO4) gives a mixture of glyceraldehyde & dihydroxyacetone. Mixture of these two are known as Glycerose. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 8. …Fenton’s Reagent 4. Conversion of tartaric acid into dihydroxy fumaric acid; Ø Tartaric acid is a white, crystalline organic acid that occurs naturally in many fruits, most notably in grapes, but also in bananas, and citrus. Ø Its salt, potassium bitartrate, commonly known as cream of tartar, develops naturally in the process of winemaking. FeSO4 + H2O2
- 9. …Fenton’s Reagent 5. Hydroxylation of salicylic acid in aqueous medium by the electrogeneration of Fenton’s reagent: An attack of hydroxyl radical on salicylic acid produced 2,3- and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acids with 2,3- dihydroxy-benzoic acid as a major product. New J. Chem., 2012, 36, 1265–1272 FeSO4 + H2O2
- 10. …Fenton’s Reagent: Summary 1. Hydroxylation of arenes. 2. Barbituric acid into alloxan. 3. Glycerol gives a mixture of glyceraldehyde & dihydroxyacetone ~ known as Glycerose. 4. Tartaric acid into dihydroxy fumaric acid. 5. Hydroxylation of salicylic acid. FeSO4 + H2O2