Observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, is the learning of new behaviors by observing others. Key aspects include a model exhibiting the behavior and an observer learning the behavior. Research shows observational learning in both animals and humans. Determinants of imitation include characteristics of the model and consequences of the model's behavior. A landmark study by Zentall and Hogan provided evidence of true imitation in pigeons where observers duplicated novel behaviors. While some processes like stimulus enhancement can produce similar behaviors, multiple studies support true imitation occurring in animals.

1. Observational Learning
Chapter 12
Observational Learning, Language,
and Rule-Governed Behavior

2. Observational Learning
• Definition: The learning of new behaviors by
observing the behavior of others
• The individual exhibiting the behavior is
called a Model
• Other terms for observational learning:
– Imitation
– Modeling
– Social learning
– Vicarious learning

3. Examples of Observational
Learning
• Cook et al. (1985)
– Lab-reared monkeys were initially unafraid of
snakes
– They observed other monkeys behaving
fearfully toward snakes
– The lab-reared monkeys became intensely
fearful of snakes

4. Examples of Observational
Learning
Drinking Rate (ounces per minute)
• Garlington and 1.2 Confed
Dericco (1977) 1 Subject
– College students 0.8
were asked to drink
in pairs in a 0.6
simulated tavern 0.4
– One of the pair was
0.2
a confederate
– Subjects generally 0
matched their rate B1 B4 F7 B10 S13
of drinking to the
confederates Phases in Modeled Drinking

5. How might Observational Learning
Work?
• Classical Conditioning component:
– CS (laughter)  UCS (pleasant, funny event)
UCR (laugh, smile)
– CS (laughter)
CR (laugh, smile)

6. How might Observational Learning
Work?
• Operant Conditioning Component:
– If the model is reinforced for the behavior, the
modeler is more likely to try it; if the model is
punished, then the observer is less likely to try it
– If the observer models the behavior and is
reinforced, then they will be more likely to do that
behavior again, and if punished, then less likely
– The choice of a model gets reinforced or
punished, and the circumstances will also
determine if a modeled behavior is likely to be
reinforced or punished

7. Determinants of Imitation
• Personal characteristics of the model:
– Social status (e.g., Lefkowitz, Blake, and
Mouton, 1955: street-crossing confederate)
– Friendliness (e.g., Mischel and Grusec, 1966
with children imitating adults)
– Power (e.g., Mischel and Grusec, 1966 study, if
children thought model was going to be their
teacher)
– Resembles observer (Bussey and Bandura,
1984; Dowling, 1984)

8. Determinants of Imitation
Praise • Consequences
5
of the Model’s
Frequency of Human Nouns
No
4 Resp Behavior
– Kanfer and
3
Marston, 1963
2 – Study had college
students free-
1 associate via
headphones &
0
microphone
B 1 2 3
– Could “hear” other
Blocks of 10 Trials subjects

9. Determinants of Imitation
• Whether or not the observer is explicitly
reinforced for attending to the Model’s
behavior (e.g., coach)
• If the observer can actually understand
and duplicate the modeled behavior

10. Observational Learning in Animals
• Early researchers such as Thorndike (1898) were
not able to show imitation in animals experimentally
• Research on observational learning was shelved
until the around the 1930’s, and became popular in
the 1960’s with Bandura’s work
• Currently, there is a lot of research suggesting that
observational learning is an important source of
information about an animal’s environment

11. Observational Learning in Animals
• The question is whether or not animals can
show true imitation
– Duplication of a novel behavior or sequence of
behaviors
– In order to achieve a specific goal
• Other processes that may produce “similar”
behavior (not true imitation) include:
– Stimulus or local enhancement
– Social facilitation

12. Observational Learning in Animals
• Stimulus or Local Enhancement:
– The increase in salience to the observer of
important stimuli
– Due to the demonstrator or model making
contact with those stimuli
• Social Facilitation:
– An increase in the frequency or intensity of a
response that is already in the animal’s repetoire
– When another conspecific is present and
engaged in the target behavior at that time

13. True Imitation in Pigeons
• Zentall and Hogan (1976)
– Observer pigeons were previously magazine trained and
were otherwise naive
– Duplicate cage method; hungry pigeons required to peck
a lit key to receive grain
– 5 Groups:
• OKP = Observed a pigeon key-pecking for grain
• OE = Observed a yoked pigeon eating from food hopper
• ON = Observed a naïve bird in other chamber
• OE = Observed an empty chamber
• OI = Observed an empty chamber that had key-light and food
hopper yoked to OKP group’s model

14. Zentall & Hogan (1976) Results
90
80
% Birds Pecking Lit Key
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
OKP OE ON OE OI
Group

15. True Imitation in Animals?
• Zentall and Hogan’s 1976 study may not
have completely ruled out some effect of
local stimulus enhancement, but if one
compares the OKP group to the OE and
OI groups the results are pretty clear
• Enough additional studies have been
conducted to suggest that there is true
imitation in animals