This document discusses different types of mobile DNA elements, including transposable elements found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes four main types of bacterial transposons: insertion sequences (IS elements), composite transposons, bacteriophage Mu, and Tn10. IS elements are the simplest, while composite transposons contain genes unrelated to transposition. Tn10 is a composite transposon containing genes for tetracycline resistance. The document also discusses retrotransposons in eukaryotes, which move via an RNA intermediate, unlike prokaryotic DNA transposons which move directly as DNA.
1) The document discusses the process of natural transformation in bacteria, where DNA is transferred from one bacterial cell to another without direct contact.
2) It describes how competent bacterial cells can take up extracellular DNA released from lysed donor cells, and how the DNA can recombine into the recipient cell's genome.
3) The document compares natural transformation between gram-positive bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and gram-negative bacteria like Haemophilus influenzae, noting differences in how DNA is taken up and the role of specific DNA sequences.
Transposable elements, also known as jumping genes, are segments of DNA that can change positions within a genome. There are two main types: transposons, which can carry additional genes, and retrotransposons, which move via an RNA intermediate. Transposition occurs through a "cut and paste" mechanism - the transposon is cut out of the donor DNA and inserted elsewhere, sometimes duplicating itself in the process. This movement can cause mutations by disrupting genes. Transposons have been useful for genetic engineering and mutagenesis experiments.
Transduction is a mode of genetic transfer between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. During viral replication, fragments of bacterial DNA can become packaged within viral particles. These particles may then infect other bacteria and insert the donor DNA into the recipient genome. There are two types of transduction - generalized, where any bacterial DNA fragment can be transferred, and specialized, where only DNA near the site of viral integration is transferred. Cotransduction frequencies can also be used to map the relative locations of bacterial genes, as genes closer together are more likely to be cotransferred within the same viral particle. Transduction is useful for genetic engineering and mapping bacterial chromosomes.
The document summarizes the key mechanisms by which the human immune system generates a diverse repertoire of antibodies from a relatively small number of genes. It describes the somatic variation theory where mutation and recombination of immunoglobulin genes in somatic cells results in high antibody diversity. It explains processes like V(D)J recombination of light and heavy chain genes, junctional diversity, allelic exclusion, somatic hypermutation, and class switching which all contribute to antibody diversity.
This document discusses three mechanisms of gene transfer in bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of DNA via a connection tube from a donor to recipient cell. Transformation occurs when environmental DNA is taken up by a competent cell. Transduction is when a bacteriophage transfers DNA from one bacterial cell to another. All three mechanisms are unidirectional and involve recombination of the transferred DNA into the recipient genome.
P elements are transposable elements that were discovered in Drosophila as the causative agents of genetic traits called hybrid dysgenesis. The transposon is responsible for the P trait of the P element and it is found only in wild flies. They are also found in many other eukaryotes.
1) The document discusses the process of natural transformation in bacteria, where DNA is transferred from one bacterial cell to another without direct contact.
2) It describes how competent bacterial cells can take up extracellular DNA released from lysed donor cells, and how the DNA can recombine into the recipient cell's genome.
3) The document compares natural transformation between gram-positive bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and gram-negative bacteria like Haemophilus influenzae, noting differences in how DNA is taken up and the role of specific DNA sequences.
Transposable elements, also known as jumping genes, are segments of DNA that can change positions within a genome. There are two main types: transposons, which can carry additional genes, and retrotransposons, which move via an RNA intermediate. Transposition occurs through a "cut and paste" mechanism - the transposon is cut out of the donor DNA and inserted elsewhere, sometimes duplicating itself in the process. This movement can cause mutations by disrupting genes. Transposons have been useful for genetic engineering and mutagenesis experiments.
Transduction is a mode of genetic transfer between bacteria mediated by bacteriophages. During viral replication, fragments of bacterial DNA can become packaged within viral particles. These particles may then infect other bacteria and insert the donor DNA into the recipient genome. There are two types of transduction - generalized, where any bacterial DNA fragment can be transferred, and specialized, where only DNA near the site of viral integration is transferred. Cotransduction frequencies can also be used to map the relative locations of bacterial genes, as genes closer together are more likely to be cotransferred within the same viral particle. Transduction is useful for genetic engineering and mapping bacterial chromosomes.
The document summarizes the key mechanisms by which the human immune system generates a diverse repertoire of antibodies from a relatively small number of genes. It describes the somatic variation theory where mutation and recombination of immunoglobulin genes in somatic cells results in high antibody diversity. It explains processes like V(D)J recombination of light and heavy chain genes, junctional diversity, allelic exclusion, somatic hypermutation, and class switching which all contribute to antibody diversity.
This document discusses three mechanisms of gene transfer in bacteria: conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Conjugation involves the direct transfer of DNA via a connection tube from a donor to recipient cell. Transformation occurs when environmental DNA is taken up by a competent cell. Transduction is when a bacteriophage transfers DNA from one bacterial cell to another. All three mechanisms are unidirectional and involve recombination of the transferred DNA into the recipient genome.
P elements are transposable elements that were discovered in Drosophila as the causative agents of genetic traits called hybrid dysgenesis. The transposon is responsible for the P trait of the P element and it is found only in wild flies. They are also found in many other eukaryotes.
Gene cloning in eukaryotes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris involves inserting foreign DNA into cloning vectors that can replicate in these organisms. Key steps include isolating the cloning vector and gene of interest, inserting the gene into the vector using restriction enzymes and ligase, transforming the vector into host cells, and identifying cell clones carrying the gene. Yeasts like S. cerevisiae are commonly used for eukaryotic gene cloning due to their ability to perform post-translational modifications, though P. pastoris has higher protein yields. Vectors like YACs allow cloning of very large DNA fragments. Eukaryotic expression systems optimize protein production through features like inducible
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
A suppressor mutation counters the effects of an original mutation by restoring the wild-type phenotype. There are two main types of suppressor mutations: intragenic mutations occur within the same gene and restore function through alternate amino acid substitutions, while intergenic mutations occur elsewhere in the genome and restore function through interacting gene products. Suppressor mutations are useful for studying protein-protein interactions and dissecting biological pathways.
The document discusses genetic recombination and site-specific recombination. It describes the Meselson-Radding model of genetic recombination, which involves a single-strand nick that allows DNA polymerase to extend the 3' end and displace the other strand, forming a D loop structure. Site-specific recombination involves recombinases cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences and rejoining the strands to form a Holliday junction intermediate. Examples discussed include bacteriophage lambda integration into E. coli DNA, which is mediated by lambda integrase recombining attP and attB sites.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
RNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS (COPIA) IN Drosophila
within host genomes.
As TEs comprise more than 40% of the human genome and are linked to
numerous diseases, understanding their mechanisms of mobilization and
regulation is important.
Drosophila melanogaster is an ideal model organism for the study of eukaryotic
TEs as its genome contains a diverse array of active TEs.
Also referred to as “jumping genes,” TEs move, or transpose, to different locations
throughout the genomes in which they reside.
The document summarizes key information about Ti plasmids, which are plasmids found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens that cause crown gall disease in plants. The Ti plasmid transfers a segment of DNA called T-DNA into the host plant genome, integrating genes that cause tumor formation. The plasmid has regions for T-DNA, virulence genes needed for transfer, and sometimes opine catabolism genes. Ti plasmids are used to create transgenic plants by replacing the tumor genes with a gene of interest in the T-DNA.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that was first isolated from monkey kidney cell cultures used to produce the poliovirus vaccine. It has a small circular DNA genome wrapped in histone proteins. The genome contains early and late protein coding genes as well as regulatory sequences. The early proteins are non-structural while the late proteins form the viral capsid. The SV40 genome can be modified to replace the early protein coding genes with a gene of interest for gene therapy purposes. A recombinant SV40 viral vector offers advantages such as the ability to transduce both dividing and resting cells with high efficiency and provide long-lasting transgene expression.
Bacteria use quorum sensing to communicate via secreted signalling molecules called autoinducers. At high cell densities, autoinducers accumulate and bind receptor proteins to trigger expression of genes related to behaviors like bioluminescence and virulence factor production. Quorum sensing was first discovered in Vibrio fischeri by Nealson and Hastings in 1979. It allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression and behave as multicellular communities. Disrupting quorum sensing is a potential approach to inhibiting pathogenic bacterial infections and biofilms.
Genome mapping involves locating genes on chromosomes and determining the relative distances between genes. There are two main types of maps: genetic linkage maps which show the arrangement of genes based on their inheritance patterns, and physical maps which provide actual distances between landmarks on chromosomes. Physical maps can be further divided into cytogenetic maps, radiation hybrid maps, and sequence maps, with the complete DNA sequence being the ultimate physical map. Mapping methods include linkage analysis using genetic markers, as well as transformation, transduction, and sequencing of bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) and yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs).
This document discusses bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects E. coli bacteria. It has a complex protein coat and large double-stranded DNA genome. T4 uses the host cell's machinery to replicate and kills the host cell. T4 plays a role in cholera and diphtheria by carrying toxin genes that allow the bacteria to cause disease. Bacteriophage may be useful for treating antibiotic-resistant bacteria or infections where antibiotics cannot reach. T4 is also used in recombinant DNA technology.
Transposable elements, or transposons, are DNA sequences that can move within genomes. There are two main classes of transposons: those that encode proteins to directly move the DNA element, and retrotransposons that move via an RNA intermediate using reverse transcriptase. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in the 1940s and 1950s through her studies of maize, where she observed "jumping genes" that caused mosaic color patterns in kernels. Transposons are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and can insert into new locations in genomes, sometimes causing mutations. They have played an important role in genome evolution and can continue to induce genetic variation.
This document describes the Cre-loxP system for creating conditional gene knockouts in mice. The system involves introducing the Cre recombinase enzyme and loxP sites, which are not naturally present in mice. LoxP sites are inserted on either side of the gene to be knocked out in one "floxed" mouse line. A separate "Cre mouse" line is created that expresses Cre recombinase in a tissue-specific manner. Crossing the two mouse lines results in Cre recombinase recombining the loxP sites and deleting the gene of interest, but only in the tissues where Cre is expressed, allowing conditional rather than complete knockout of the gene.
Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages mpattani
This document discusses various mechanisms of genetic transfer in bacteria, including conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Conjugation involves the physical transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact and an apparatus called a sex pilus. Transduction is virus-mediated and occurs when bacteriophages inadvertently package and transfer bacterial DNA. Transformation involves the natural uptake and incorporation of extracellular DNA into bacterial cells. These mechanisms allow for horizontal gene transfer and were important for mapping the bacterial chromosome and determining gene order.
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetic linkage in fungi and other lower eukaryotes. During meiosis in these organisms, four haploid spores, known as a tetrad, are produced. If spores remain in ordered linear formations, called ordered tetrads, the arrangement allows mapping of genes relative to centromeres. If spores are randomly mixed in unordered tetrads, patterns of allele segregation can determine if two genes are linked. Analysis of tetrad segregation patterns is used to calculate genetic distance between loci.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
Transposon mutagenesis & site directed mutagenesisAnuKiruthika
This document provides information on transposon mutagenesis and site-directed mutagenesis. It defines transposons as "jumping genes" that can move locations in the genome and explains that transposon mutagenesis uses transposons to cause mutations by interrupting genes. Site-directed mutagenesis is described as an in vitro technique to introduce specific mutations into DNA using methods like conventional PCR, nested PCR, or inverse PCR. The document outlines several applications of these mutagenesis methods such as identifying virulence genes or screening for desired mutations.
This document discusses eukaryotic genomes. It begins by defining a genome and noting that eukaryotic DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers. These fibers condense into chromosomes during cell division. Histone modification through acetylation and methylation can relax or tighten chromatin structure to increase or decrease gene transcription. The document then discusses transcription, post-transcriptional modification, translation, and post-translational modification of proteins in eukaryotic cells.
Transposons are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome. Barbara McClintock first discovered transposons in corn in the 1940s. There are two classes of transposons: class I (retrotransposons) move via an RNA intermediate, while class II (DNA transposons) move directly via a cut-and-paste mechanism. Transposons make up a large percentage of many genomes and can cause mutations when they insert into genes, which has implications for genetic disease and genome evolution.
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in maize and earned a Nobel Prize. There are three main types of transposons: cut-and-paste transposons excise and reinsert DNA; copy-and-paste transposons replicate before insertion; and retrotransposons move via an RNA intermediate. Transposons are found across organisms and can impact genome size and mutation rates.
Gene cloning in eukaryotes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia pastoris involves inserting foreign DNA into cloning vectors that can replicate in these organisms. Key steps include isolating the cloning vector and gene of interest, inserting the gene into the vector using restriction enzymes and ligase, transforming the vector into host cells, and identifying cell clones carrying the gene. Yeasts like S. cerevisiae are commonly used for eukaryotic gene cloning due to their ability to perform post-translational modifications, though P. pastoris has higher protein yields. Vectors like YACs allow cloning of very large DNA fragments. Eukaryotic expression systems optimize protein production through features like inducible
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
A suppressor mutation counters the effects of an original mutation by restoring the wild-type phenotype. There are two main types of suppressor mutations: intragenic mutations occur within the same gene and restore function through alternate amino acid substitutions, while intergenic mutations occur elsewhere in the genome and restore function through interacting gene products. Suppressor mutations are useful for studying protein-protein interactions and dissecting biological pathways.
The document discusses genetic recombination and site-specific recombination. It describes the Meselson-Radding model of genetic recombination, which involves a single-strand nick that allows DNA polymerase to extend the 3' end and displace the other strand, forming a D loop structure. Site-specific recombination involves recombinases cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences and rejoining the strands to form a Holliday junction intermediate. Examples discussed include bacteriophage lambda integration into E. coli DNA, which is mediated by lambda integrase recombining attP and attB sites.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
RNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS (COPIA) IN Drosophila
within host genomes.
As TEs comprise more than 40% of the human genome and are linked to
numerous diseases, understanding their mechanisms of mobilization and
regulation is important.
Drosophila melanogaster is an ideal model organism for the study of eukaryotic
TEs as its genome contains a diverse array of active TEs.
Also referred to as “jumping genes,” TEs move, or transpose, to different locations
throughout the genomes in which they reside.
The document summarizes key information about Ti plasmids, which are plasmids found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens that cause crown gall disease in plants. The Ti plasmid transfers a segment of DNA called T-DNA into the host plant genome, integrating genes that cause tumor formation. The plasmid has regions for T-DNA, virulence genes needed for transfer, and sometimes opine catabolism genes. Ti plasmids are used to create transgenic plants by replacing the tumor genes with a gene of interest in the T-DNA.
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the biological mechanism by which proteins are transported to their appropriate destinations in the cell or outside it. Proteins can be targeted to the inner space of an organelle, different intracellular membranes, plasma membrane, or to exterior of the cell via secretion.
Simian virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that was first isolated from monkey kidney cell cultures used to produce the poliovirus vaccine. It has a small circular DNA genome wrapped in histone proteins. The genome contains early and late protein coding genes as well as regulatory sequences. The early proteins are non-structural while the late proteins form the viral capsid. The SV40 genome can be modified to replace the early protein coding genes with a gene of interest for gene therapy purposes. A recombinant SV40 viral vector offers advantages such as the ability to transduce both dividing and resting cells with high efficiency and provide long-lasting transgene expression.
Bacteria use quorum sensing to communicate via secreted signalling molecules called autoinducers. At high cell densities, autoinducers accumulate and bind receptor proteins to trigger expression of genes related to behaviors like bioluminescence and virulence factor production. Quorum sensing was first discovered in Vibrio fischeri by Nealson and Hastings in 1979. It allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression and behave as multicellular communities. Disrupting quorum sensing is a potential approach to inhibiting pathogenic bacterial infections and biofilms.
Genome mapping involves locating genes on chromosomes and determining the relative distances between genes. There are two main types of maps: genetic linkage maps which show the arrangement of genes based on their inheritance patterns, and physical maps which provide actual distances between landmarks on chromosomes. Physical maps can be further divided into cytogenetic maps, radiation hybrid maps, and sequence maps, with the complete DNA sequence being the ultimate physical map. Mapping methods include linkage analysis using genetic markers, as well as transformation, transduction, and sequencing of bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) and yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs).
This document discusses bacteriophage T4, a virus that infects E. coli bacteria. It has a complex protein coat and large double-stranded DNA genome. T4 uses the host cell's machinery to replicate and kills the host cell. T4 plays a role in cholera and diphtheria by carrying toxin genes that allow the bacteria to cause disease. Bacteriophage may be useful for treating antibiotic-resistant bacteria or infections where antibiotics cannot reach. T4 is also used in recombinant DNA technology.
Transposable elements, or transposons, are DNA sequences that can move within genomes. There are two main classes of transposons: those that encode proteins to directly move the DNA element, and retrotransposons that move via an RNA intermediate using reverse transcriptase. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in the 1940s and 1950s through her studies of maize, where she observed "jumping genes" that caused mosaic color patterns in kernels. Transposons are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and can insert into new locations in genomes, sometimes causing mutations. They have played an important role in genome evolution and can continue to induce genetic variation.
This document describes the Cre-loxP system for creating conditional gene knockouts in mice. The system involves introducing the Cre recombinase enzyme and loxP sites, which are not naturally present in mice. LoxP sites are inserted on either side of the gene to be knocked out in one "floxed" mouse line. A separate "Cre mouse" line is created that expresses Cre recombinase in a tissue-specific manner. Crossing the two mouse lines results in Cre recombinase recombining the loxP sites and deleting the gene of interest, but only in the tissues where Cre is expressed, allowing conditional rather than complete knockout of the gene.
Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages mpattani
This document discusses various mechanisms of genetic transfer in bacteria, including conjugation, transduction, and transformation. Conjugation involves the physical transfer of genetic material between bacteria via cell-to-cell contact and an apparatus called a sex pilus. Transduction is virus-mediated and occurs when bacteriophages inadvertently package and transfer bacterial DNA. Transformation involves the natural uptake and incorporation of extracellular DNA into bacterial cells. These mechanisms allow for horizontal gene transfer and were important for mapping the bacterial chromosome and determining gene order.
Tetrad analysis is a technique used to study genetic linkage in fungi and other lower eukaryotes. During meiosis in these organisms, four haploid spores, known as a tetrad, are produced. If spores remain in ordered linear formations, called ordered tetrads, the arrangement allows mapping of genes relative to centromeres. If spores are randomly mixed in unordered tetrads, patterns of allele segregation can determine if two genes are linked. Analysis of tetrad segregation patterns is used to calculate genetic distance between loci.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
Transposon mutagenesis & site directed mutagenesisAnuKiruthika
This document provides information on transposon mutagenesis and site-directed mutagenesis. It defines transposons as "jumping genes" that can move locations in the genome and explains that transposon mutagenesis uses transposons to cause mutations by interrupting genes. Site-directed mutagenesis is described as an in vitro technique to introduce specific mutations into DNA using methods like conventional PCR, nested PCR, or inverse PCR. The document outlines several applications of these mutagenesis methods such as identifying virulence genes or screening for desired mutations.
This document discusses eukaryotic genomes. It begins by defining a genome and noting that eukaryotic DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers. These fibers condense into chromosomes during cell division. Histone modification through acetylation and methylation can relax or tighten chromatin structure to increase or decrease gene transcription. The document then discusses transcription, post-transcriptional modification, translation, and post-translational modification of proteins in eukaryotic cells.
Transposons are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome. Barbara McClintock first discovered transposons in corn in the 1940s. There are two classes of transposons: class I (retrotransposons) move via an RNA intermediate, while class II (DNA transposons) move directly via a cut-and-paste mechanism. Transposons make up a large percentage of many genomes and can cause mutations when they insert into genes, which has implications for genetic disease and genome evolution.
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in maize and earned a Nobel Prize. There are three main types of transposons: cut-and-paste transposons excise and reinsert DNA; copy-and-paste transposons replicate before insertion; and retrotransposons move via an RNA intermediate. Transposons are found across organisms and can impact genome size and mutation rates.
This document discusses transposons, which are DNA segments that can move within a genome. Transposons carry genes and can generate DNA rearrangements that impact cell survival and evolution. They encode transposase proteins that catalyze the transposition process. There are different types of transposons based on their mechanism of movement, including cut-and-paste transposons, replicative transposons, and retrotransposons. Examples like Tn3 and bacteriophage Mu are provided. Transposons can cause mutations and have played a significant role in genome alteration and evolution over time.
Presentation contents: Discovery and Definition of Transposon, Simple transposon and Composite transposons. Here I have explained Barbara McClintock Study of Transposable elements in Corn(Ac and Ds elements). After that Types of Transposable Elements. Then In Simple Transposons or IS elements introduction and how they mediate recombination between two different Plasmids. Introduction of Composite Transposons and their organization (Tn 5 and Tn 10). Introduction of Non-Composite Transposons(Tn 3) and Replicative Transposons.
Barbara McClintock discovered the first transposable element in maize in the 1940s, earning her a Nobel Prize. Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can move within a genome and make copies of themselves. They are found in over 40% of genomic DNA and play important roles in genome evolution and gene expression. There are three main types - cut-and-paste transposons, replicative transposons only found in prokaryotes, and retrotransposons only found in eukaryotes. Transposable elements move via enzymatic processes and can cause mutations by inserting into genes.
Transposable elements, also known as jumping genes, are DNA sequences that can move within genomes. They are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and make up over 50% of some genomes. There are three main types: DNA transposons which move DNA directly; retrotransposons which move via an RNA intermediate; and poly-A retrotransposons which encode reverse transcriptase. Transposition occurs through excision of the element from one site and insertion into another, sometimes disrupting genes and causing mutations. While causing mutations, transposons also contribute to genetic diversity.
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can move within genomes. It covers their discovery by Barbara McClintock in corn in the 1940s. TEs are classified into different types based on their structure and mechanism of movement. The document also examines the mechanisms of transposition, mutagenic effects, regulation, and presence of TEs across bacteria, fungi, and eukaryotes like humans. TEs make up a large fraction of genomes and contribute to genetic variation and disease.
This document discusses transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move within genomes. It describes different types of transposable elements in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, examples discussed include insertion sequence (IS) elements and transposons. In eukaryotes, examples of transposable elements found in corn, yeast, and Drosophila are described. The mechanisms of both replicative and non-replicative transposition are summarized. Barbara McClintock's pioneering discoveries of transposable elements in corn through her studies of kernel color are also highlighted.
Transportable elements are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are DNA Sequences that move from one location in a chromosome to another within the same chromosome or into another chromosome.
These are also known as “Jumping genes”.
transposable element presentation from MishaMISHAMIRAJ
Transposable elements are DNA sequences that can change positions within a genome. They were first discovered by Barbara McClintock in corn in the 1940s. There are three main mechanisms of transposition: replicative, conservative, and retrotransposition. Transposable elements are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and can cause mutations, gene alterations, and genetic diversity. They have applications in mutagenesis and gene expression studies but can also contribute to genetic diseases.
Transposons are pieces of DNA that can move within genomes. They were first discovered by Barbara McClintock in the 1950s moving within corn genomes. Transposons encode transposase enzymes that facilitate their movement by cutting and pasting the transposon into new locations. They have been found in bacteria, archaea, plants and animals. Transposons can carry additional genes that provide benefits to their host like antibiotic resistance and thus facilitate horizontal gene transfer. Their movement contributes to genome evolution and diversity.
Transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can change their position within the genome. There are two main types: DNA transposons, which move directly through a cut-and-paste mechanism, and retrotransposons, which are first transcribed into RNA and then reverse transcribed back into DNA before inserting into a new location. In bacteria, transposons often carry additional genes for antibiotic resistance and can move between bacterial chromosomes and plasmids. They use either replicative or conservative transposition mechanisms to insert into new sites in the genome. Transposons have played an important role in genome evolution and disease but can also be useful molecular tools.
Bacterial transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can move within bacterial genomes. There are two main types: insertion sequences, which consist only of the DNA required for transposition; and composite transposons, which contain additional genes like antibiotic resistance genes flanked by insertion sequences. Transposons can move within genomes through replicative or conservative transposition and have played an important role in bacterial evolution and antibiotic resistance.
Transposons are segments of DNA that can move from one location in the genome to another. There are two main types: insertion sequences (IS), which are short DNA sequences that code for transposase enzymes; and transposons, which can carry additional genes and are flanked by IS elements or inverted repeats. Transposition occurs when the transposase enzyme cuts and inserts the transposon into a new target site, sometimes duplicating flanking DNA. This movement allows transposons to generate genetic diversity and influence genome evolution over generations.
Transposable elements are segments of DNA that can change their position within the genome. They are divided into two classes based on their mechanism of movement. Class 1 elements encode reverse transcriptase and form DNA copies from RNA transcripts. Class 2 elements encode proteins that directly move the DNA. Transposable elements in prokaryotes include insertion sequences (IS elements) and transposons, while eukaryotes also contain retrotransposons similar to retroviruses. Transposition can disrupt genes or regulatory sequences and cause mutations. McClintock's work with maize introduced the concept of mobile genetic elements controlling gene expression.
Transposons are segments of DNA that can move, or "jump", from one location in the genome to another. They were first discovered by Barbara McClintock in her studies of maize. Transposons make up over 50% of the human genome. There are two classes - Class I retrotransposons move via an RNA intermediate, while Class II transposons move directly from DNA to DNA. Transposition occurs through a "cut and paste" mechanism where the transposon is excised from one location and inserted into a new random site in the genome. While transposons can disrupt gene function, recent evidence suggests they may also help organisms adapt to environmental stress.
Transposable elements are segments of DNA that can move within genomes. They are present in all domains of life and have been shown to drive evolution by causing mutations through insertion, deletion, and rearrangement. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in maize in the 1940s and was awarded a Nobel Prize for this work. Transposable elements are classified as DNA transposons or retrotransposons, and can be further divided into autonomous and non-autonomous types based on their ability to excise and transpose independently.
Transposable elements are segments of DNA that can move within genomes. They are present in all domains of life and have been shown to drive evolution by causing mutations through insertion, deletion, and rearrangement. Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in maize in the 1940s and was awarded a Nobel Prize for this work. Transposable elements are classified as DNA transposons or retrotransposons, and can be further divided into autonomous and non-autonomous types based on their ability to excise and transpose independently.
Barbara McClintock discovered transposons in corn in the 1940s. Transposons are DNA sequences that can change position within a genome through a "cut and paste" mechanism. There are two main types of transposons: those that move via a DNA intermediate, either replicatively or non-replicatively; and retrotransposons, which move via an RNA intermediate. Transposons make up about 45% of the human genome and can cause mutations by inserting into genes, though they are also used as tools for genetic engineering and mutagenesis experiments.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
1. Mobile DNA elements
Transposable elements in bacteria. IS elements. Composite transposons.
Bacteriophage Mu transposition. Tn 10 transposition. SINES and LINES.
Retroviruses and retroposons.
2. Contents :
1. Introduction.
2.Discovery of Mobile DNA Elements.
3. Types of Mobile DNA Elements.
4. Transposable Elements in Prokaryotes –
a. IS Elements
b. Composite transposon
c. Bacteriophage Mu
d. Tn 10
5. Transposable Elements in Eukaryotes –
a. Retrovirus.
b. LTR Retrotransposon
c. Non LTR Retrotransposon
6. Summary.
7. References.
3. Introduction.
The discovery of mobile genetic elements came as a big surprise for scientists. Till this discovery, the genetic information contained in an organism or a cell was
considered to be stable unless mutagenic events caused a change. However, mobile genetic elements do not seem to require any outside interference they move
of their own accord. This means that our genomes are not as static as they seem.
The other name for mobile genetic elements in transposons. By definition, transposons are those genetic elements which can move around to different positions
the genome of a single cell.
These elements excise themselves from their original place and then integrate themselves within the same genome but in a different position. In the process they
can cause mutations,
All transposons have inverted repeats at their ends. But how do these transposons move from one place to another? The phenomenon of transposition requires an
enzyme which helps the mobile element excise itself and in reintegration into another position.
This enzyme is called transposase and is encoded in a gene that normally is found in the middle of a transposon. If a given transposon does not contain a gene
for transposase, it can use the gene of another transposon and utilize the enzyme produced by this gene for its own mobility.
4. Transposons
Transposons are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
The bacteria possess four kinds of transposons: insertion sequences, transposons, composite transposons, and bacteriophage elements.
The eukaryotic transposons are broadly similar to the prokaryotic ones. However, there is an additional group here which is given the name retroposons or
retrotransposons.
Retroposons are like retroviruses in eukaryotic cells, but are not infectious.
Except for insertion sequences, other transposons contain genes that are host genes or have some cellular function affecting the host.
All transposons have (1) inverted repeats at their ends, and (2) genes for transposition in the middle.
The inverted repeats are about 15-25 bp long, and can be separated by hundreds of base pairs.
The genes (two or more) in the middle are required for transposition. They encode for proteins called transposase.
Transposons also have direct repeats at their ends where they have insertede themselves into the host genome.
Transposons can transpose in one of two ways:
Conservative transposition, where the entire double-stranded DNA segment moves to a different site in the genome.
Replicative transposition, where the transposon is first replicated and the one copy stays while the other relocates.
Transposons are sometimes called "selfish DNA" because they replicate at expense of the host cell (particularly insertion sequences, who do not benefitcell at
all).
Transposons can cause dna to mutate by insertions, deletions, inversions, breaks in the chromosome, translocation, etc
Transposon insertion is basically independent of DNA sequence - it is therefore termed as illegitimate recombination.
5. DISCOVERY OF MOBILE DNA ELEMENTS
Barbara Mcclintock discovered the first mobile elements while doing classical genetic experiments in maize (corn) during the 1940s.
Barbara Mcclintock conducted experiments on corn (zea mays) in the united states in the mid-twentieth century to study the structure and function of the
chromosomes in the cells.
Mcclintock’s original discovery of mobile elements came from observation of certain spontaneous mutations that affect production of any of the several
enzymes required to make anthocyanin, a purple pigment. Mutant kernels are white, and wild-type kernels are purple.
She characterized genetic entities that could move into and back out of genes, changing the phenotype.
Her theories were very controversial until similar mobile elements were discovered in bacteria.
6.
7. TYPES OF MOBILE DNA ELEMENTS
1. DNA TRANSPOSONS –
* Transpose directly as DNA .
* DNA transposons transpose by a “cut-and-paste” mechanism.
* DNA transposons excise themselves from one place in the genome, leaving that site and moving to another.
2. RETROTRANSPOSON –
* Transpose via an RNA intermediate transcribed from the mobile element by an RNA polymerase and then converted back
into double-stranded DNA by a reverse transcriptase
* Retrotransposons make an RNA copy of themselves and introduce this new copy into another site in the genome, while
also remaining at their original position.
* Retrotransposons move by a “copy-and-paste” mechanism in which the copy is an RNA intermediate.
* The movement of retrotransposons is analogous to the infectious process of retroviruses
8. Two major classes of mobile
elements.
(a) Eukaryotic DNA transposons
(orange) move via a DNA
intermediate, which
is excised from the donor site.
(b) Retrotransposons (green) are first
transcribed into an RNA
molecule, which is then reverse-
transcribed
into double-stranded DNA. In both
cases, the
double-stranded DNA intermediate is
integrated
into the target-site DNA to complete
movement.
Thus DNA transposons move by a
cut-and-paste
mechanism, whereas
retrotransposons move by
a copy-and-paste mechanism.
9. TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS IN PROKARYOTES.
* There are 3 types of transposable elements in prokaryotes –
1 Insertion sequence.
2 Transposons.
3 Bacteriophage Mu
TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS IN BACTERIA.
* There are 3 main types of bacterial transposons –
1 Insertion sequence or IS Elements.
2 Composite Transposons.
3 Tn3 like Elements.
10. * The IS Elements are the simplest, containing only genes that encode proteins involved in transposition.
* The composite transposons and Tn3 like elements are more complex , containing some genes that encode products unrelated to transposition
process.
IS ELEMENTS IN BACTERIA
* The first molecular understanding of mobile elements came from the study of certain E. coli mutations caused by the spontaneous insertion of
a DNA sequence, about 1–2 kb long, into the middle of a gene. These inserted stretches of DNA are called insertion sequences, or IS elements.
* These are transposable sequences which can insert at different sites in bacterial chromosomes.
* IS Elements contains ITRs [ Inverted terminal repeats ].
* IS Elements are relatively short usually not exceeding 2500 bp.
* The ITRs present at the ends of IS-elements are important feature which enables their mobility.
* The ITRs present in the IS elements of E.coli usually range between 18-40 bp.
11. * The term Inverted Terminal Repeat [ITR]implies that the sequence at 5 end of one strand is identical to the sequence at 5`end of the other
strand but they run in inverse opposite direction.
12. * General structure of bacterial IS elements.
* The relatively large central region of an IS element, which encodes one or two enzymes required for transposition, is flanked by an inverted
repeat at each end.
* The sequences of the inverted repeats are nearly identical, but they are oriented in opposite directions. The sequence is characteristic of a
particular IS element.
* The 5′ and 3′ short direct repeats are not transposed with the insertion element; rather, they are insertion-site sequences that become
duplicated, with one copy at each end, during insertion of a mobile element.
* The length of the direct repeats is constant for a given IS element, but their sequence depends on the site of insertion and therefore varies with
each transposition of the IS element. Arrows indicate sequence orientation.
13. * Between the inverted repeats is a protein-coding region, which encodes one or two enzymes required for transposition of an IS element to a
new site.
* An important hallmark of IS elements is the presence of short direct repeats, containing 5 – 11 base pairs, immediately adjacent to both ends of
the inserted element.
* The length of the direct repeat is characteristic of each type of IS element, but its sequence depends on the target site where a particular copy of
the IS element is inserted.
* Duplication of this target-site sequence to create the second direct repeat adjacent to an IS element occurs during the insertion process.
* Transposition of an IS element occurs by a “cut-and-paste” mechanism.
* Transposase performs three functions in this process:
* (1) It precisely excises the IS element from the donor DNA,
* (2) Makes staggered cuts in a short sequence in the target DNA, and
* (3) ligates the 3′ termini of the IS element to the 5′ ends of the cut target DNA. Finally, a host-cell DNA polymerase fills in the single-stranded
gaps, generating the short direct repeats that flank IS elements, and DNA ligase joins the free ends.*
14. Step 1 : Transposase, which is encoded by the IS
element (IS10 in this example), cleaves both strands of
the donor DNA next to the inverted repeats (dark red),
excising the IS10 element. At a largely random target
site, transposase makes staggered cuts in the target
DNA. In the case of IS10, the two cuts are 9 bp apart.
Step 2 : Ligation of the 3′ ends of the excised IS
element to the staggered sites in the target DNA is also
catalyzed by transposase.
Step 3 : The 9-bp gaps of single-stranded DNA left in
the resulting intermediate are filled in by a cellular DNA
polymerase;
finally, cellular DNA ligase forms the 3′→5′
phosphodiester bonds between the 3′ ends of the
extended target DNA strands and the 5′ ends of the IS10
strands.
This process results in duplication of the target-site
sequence on each side of the inserted IS element.
15. Bacterial composite transposon
* In addition to. IS elements, bacteria contain composite mobile genetic elements that are larger than IS elements known as composite transposons
and are shown by the symbol `Tn`.
* It is made up of 2 IS Elements , one present at each end of a DNA sequence , which contains genes whose function s are not related to the
transposition process.
*contain one or more protein-coding genes in addition to those required for transposition.
*these elements are composed of an antibiotic-resistance gene flanked by two copies of the same type of IS element.
*Insertion of a transposon into plasmid or chromosomal DNA is readily detectable because of the acquired resistance to an antibiotic.
* These transposons have ITRs at the ends.
*Transposition produces a short direct repeat of the target site on either side of the newly integrated transposon, just as for IS elements.
*It can be said that these are the large transposons which are formed by capturing of an immobile DNA sequence within 2 insertion sequence thus
enabling it to move.
*Example of such transposons include the members of Tn series like Tn1, Tn5, Tn9, Tn10 etc.
16. * General structure of bacterial transposons, such as Tn9 of E. coli.
* This transposon consists of a chloramphenicol-resistance gene (dark blue) flanked by two copies of IS1 (orange), one of the smallest IS elements.
* Other copies of IS1, without the drug-resistance gene, are located elsewhere in the E. coli chromosome. The internal inverted repeats of
IS1 abutting the resistance gene are so mutated that transposase does not recognize them.
* During transposition, the IS-element transposase makes cuts at the positions indicated by small red arrows, so the entire transposon is moved
from the donor DNA .
* The target-site sequence at the point of insertion becomes duplicated on either side of the transposon during transposition, which occurs via the
replicative mechanism
17. Tn 10 transposon
* Tn10 is a composite transposon.
* It comprises a pair of IS10 insertion sequences located in opposite orientation flanking ~6.7 kb of unique sequences; these unique sequences
encode a tetracycline resistance determinant and other determinants whose functions remain to be identified .
18. * One of Tn10’s two IS10 elements, IS10-Right, is structurally and functionally intact and is considered to be the “wild type” IS10.
* IS10 encodes a single transposase protein which mediates transposition by interacting with specific sequences at two oppositely oriented IS10
(or Tn10) termini.
* The termini of IS10 are subtly different and are referred to as the “outside” and “inside” end, respectively, by virtue of their position in Tn10.
* IS10-Left is structurally intact but encodes a substantially defective transposase.
* Tn10 has a composite structure and it is composed of a pair of insertion sequence elements (IS10) flanking five genes.
* Only one of the IS10 elements encodes a functional transposase.[Since the ends of the IS10 element contain the transposase recognition sites,
Tn10 has a total of four such sites.
* If the transposase binds the two recognition sites flanking an IS10 element, the IS10 element undergoes transposition independently of the larger
composite structure.
* If the transposase binds the two outermost recognition sites, the whole composite Tn10 structure undergoes transposition.
19. Two of the five genes encoded by the central portion of Tn10, tetA and tetR confer resistance to the antibiotic tetracycline.
The functions of the other three genes, jemA, jemB and jemC, are unknown .
The Tn10/IS10 transposase is closely related to another composite transposon, Tn5/IS50.
Transposition in Tn 10
The composite bacterial transposon Tn10 transposes by a non-replicative mechanism.
The complete transposon, or one of its two flanking IS10 modules, is first excised by a pair of double strand breaks and then inserted into a new
target site.
These steps are carried out by the Tn10-encoded transposase protein, a 46 kDa protein that binds to specialized DNA sequences located at
transposon termini or ‘ends’
20.
21.
22. Non-replicative, "cut-and-paste" mechanism
.* First, the transposase makes a double-stranded cut in the donor DNA at the ends of the transposon and makes a staggered cut in the recipient
DNA.
* Each end of the donor DNA is then joined to an overhanging end of the recipient DNA. DNA polymerase fills in the short, overhanging
sequences, resulting in a short, direct repeat on each side of the transposon insertion in the recipient DNA. A cartoon of this process is shown in
previous slide.
* Non-replicative transposition of Tn10 involves three distinct chemical steps,
* 1 first-strand nicking
* 2 hairpin formation
* 3 hairpin resolution.
* Tn10 transposition involves the formation of a hairpin intermediate at the transposon termini.
23. Structure of IS10 Right and transposase-mediated
chemical steps in Tn10/IS10 transposition.
IS10 Right (thick lines) encodes transposase protein
and contains the binding determinants for
transposase (filled rectangles) at its termini, the
‘inside’ (IE) and ‘outside’ (OE) end sequences.
The inverted repeat sequence (half arrows) contains
the primary specificity determinants for transposase
binding. In addition, the OE also contains a binding
site for Escherichia coli IHF (open rectangle) and a
second ‘distal’ transposase-binding site.
The four chemical steps that occur at each
transposon end are indicated; thin lines indicate
flanking donor DNA.
The top strand shown is the ‘non-transferred’ strand
(NTS) and the bottom strand is the ‘transferred’
strand (TS).
24.
25. First, hydrolytic cleavage of the transferred strand at the terminal nucleotide would generate a 3′OH group.
Second, this 3′OH would attack the non-transferred strand, joining the terminal 3′OH to the scissile phosphate to form a hairpin at the
transposon end and releasing the flanking donor DNA as a double-stranded end.
Third, the hairpin would be resolved by hydrolytic attack at the terminal phosphodiester linkage to regenerate the 3′OH residue at nucleotide
1 of the transferred strand. These steps would be followed by strand transfer.
26. BACTERIOPHAGE Mu
Bacteriophage is a type of virus that infect
bacteria, also known as phage Mu.
Since it infects the members of enterobacteria it is called enterobacteria
phage Mu.
It belongs to family Myoviridae and it is dsDNA virus.
It is a temperate and transposable phage which causes transposition of genes
at the time of its multiplication cycle.
Bacteriophage Mu is both a virus and a transposon.
When Mu DNA enters E. coli, its bacterial host, it integrates at random
sites into the host chromosome by transposition.
In other words, the whole of the Mu genome is a transposon.
27. If Mu inserts into the middle of a host gene this will be inactivated. Early investigators noticed that infection with this virus caused frequent mutations
and therefore named it Mu for “mutator” phage.
* It is the longest transposon known so far.
* Caries numerous gene for viral head and tail formation.
* Replication of Mu produces about 100 viral chromosomes in a cell , arises from transposition of Mu to about 100 different target sites.
* Therefore considered as giant mutator transposon.
* It has an icosahedral head and contractile tail.
* Its packaged genome consists of a single, linear dsDNA molecule with about 37,000 base pairs.
* In addition, the phage usually packages between 500 and 3000 base pairs of host DNA from random chromosomal locations, making phage Mu a
generalized transducing phage.
* Phage Mu exhibits a temperate life cycle with its genome integrated into the chromosome of its host E. coli.
28. It is after integration that the Mu genome displays an unusual alternate mode of movement, acting as a transposon that moves from one location in
the host genome to another.
* It can do this in a non-replicative manner leaving one location and inserting into another .
* Or it can utilize a replicative transfer mode and a second copy of the genome/transposon is created at the second location.
* Mu integrates into its E. coli host by transposition. Mu may exist as a prophage or enter into the lytic cycle.
* Mu undergoes replicative transposition when it replicates and produces many copies of itself, that ultimately destroy the host.
* However, Mu does have a mechanism in place to ensure that it does not integrate into its own genome and destroy itself. This is called
transposition immunity and relies on the binding of specific Mu proteins.
* Mu is a lysogenic phage, capable of inserting into the host chromosome like a transposon.
* In the lytic cycle, Mu replicates by transposing randomly across the host chromosome. The transposition of Mu during the lytic cycle is
estimated to occur about 100 times, revealing a robust transposition mechanism.
29. Mu Transposition Mechanism
Mu transposition has two distinct phases – 1. Infection phage
2. Lytic phage
During the infection phase, the Mu DNA injected into cells has a peculiar structure. This DNA is linear in the phage heads, and flanked by non-
Mu host DNA acquired during packaging of integrated Mu replicas during the lytic cycle in a prior host.
60 – 150 bp of host sequences flank the left or L end of Mu, and 0.5 – 3 kb flank the right or R end .
An injected phage protein N binds to the tip of the flanking DNA (FD), protecting the open ends from degradation while also converting the linear
genome into a non-covalently closed supercoiled circle prior to integration into the host chromosome .
During the lytic phase, Mu is part of a large covalently closed circular host genome . Thus, the donor Mu DNA configuration in the infection
phase is different from that during the lytic phase. In both phases, the mechanism of Mu transposition is the same.
30. A) In the infection phase, the linear donor
Mu genome is converted to a non-
covalently closed circle, joined by the
MuN protein (purple ovals; ends shown
unjoined for clarity); the E. coli genome
is the target. The ST intermediate formed
during intermolecular transposition is
resolved by removal of the flanking DNA
(FD), and repair of the 5 bp gaps in the
target by limited replication at the host-
Mu junction.
(B) In the lytic phase, Mu is part of the
covalently closed circular E. coli genome.
The ST intermediate formed during
intramolecular transposition is resolved
by replication across Mu.
31. * The transposase MuA initially generates a pair of water-mediated endo-nucleolytic cleavages on specific Mu-host phosphodiester bonds,
producing 3’-OH nicks at Mu DNA ends .
* In the subsequent strand transfer (ST) step, the 3’-OH ends directly attack phosphodiester bonds in the target DNA spaced 5 bp apart; this reaction
is intermolecular in the infection phase and intramolecular in the lytic phase .
* Mu ends join to 5’-Ps in the target, leaving 3’-OH nicks on the target. The MuB protein is essential for efficient capture of the target, but plays
critical roles at all stages of transposition by allosterically activating MuA .
* The cleavage and ST reactions, also called phosphoryl transfer reactions are common to other DNA transposition systems including retroviral
integration .
* These reactions take place within the same active site of MuA, which contains a structurally conserved ‘DDE’ domain.
* Post-transposition, the branched ST intermediate product must be resolved .
* During the infection phase, the intermediate is resolved by FD removal/degradation and repair of the 5 bp gaps in the target by limited DNA
replication, generating a simple insertion of Mu in the E. coli genome.
* During the lytic phase, the intermediate is resolved by target-primed replication across the entire Mu genome. These product resolution pathways
will be referred to as repair or replication pathways.
32. TRANSPOSOSOME ASSEMBLY, ACTIVITY, AND STRUCTURE
The Mu transpososome is assembled by interactions of transposase MuA subunits with the left and right ends of Mu and an enhancer located in
between.
* Mu transposition requires MuA binding to sites at the left (L) and right (R) ends (also referred to as att ends), as well as at an enhancer (E) DNA
segment located ~1 kb away from the L end on the Mu genome .
* The L and R ends are asymmetric with respect to orientation and spacing of the three MuA-binding sites at each end (L1-L3 and R1-R3). There are
three MuA-binding sites at E as well (O1-O3).
*Separate regions within MuA bind to the end and enhancer sites .
* Under physiological reaction conditions, transpososome assembly requires that both sets of DNA sites in their native configuration be present on
supercoiled Mu donor DNA, along with the E. coli protein HU, which binds between L1 and L2 at the L end , the E. coli IHF protein, which binds
between O1 and O2 at E, optimizes assembly. In the presence of the divalent metal ion Mg2+, these components are sufficient for promoting the DNA
cleavage reaction.
* ST requires MuB in addition , MuB is an AAA+ ATPase, which binds DNA non-specifically .
* The ATPase activity of MuB is stimulated by DNA and MuA. MuB not only captures target DNA and delivers it to the transpososome, but its
interactions with MuA optimize all stages of transpsosome assembly.
33.
34.
35. TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS IN EUKARYOTES.
* Most mobile elements in eukaryotes are retrotransposons, but eukaryotic DNA transposons also occur.
* Indeed, the original mobile elements discovered by Barbara McClintock are DNA transposons.
* on the basis of mechanism of transposition , mobile genetic elements of eukaryotes can be divided into 2 classes:
* Class I elements- RNA Transposable elements [ DNA to RNA to DNA]
Includes 3 families: 1 Retroviruses.
2 Long terminal repeat [ LTR ] Retrotransposons , Viral family.
3 Non LTR Retrotransposons, Non viral family
* Class II Elements DNA Transposable elements [ DNA to DNA ]
36. Retroviruses
* The genomes of a number of animal viruses can integrate into the host-cell genome. Among the most important of these are the
retroviruses.
* retroviruses are enveloped viruses with a genome consisting of two identical strands of RNA.
* These viruses are so named because their RNA genome acts as a template for the formation of a DNA molecule—a flow of genetic
information that is opposite to the more common transcription of DNA into RNA.
37. RETROVIRUS GENOMES Are composed of single stranded RNA comprising at least 3 genes –
* gag – coding for structural proteins of viral particle
* pol – coding for a reverse transcriptase / integrase protein
* env – coding for a protein embedded in the virus`s lipid envelop
* Retrovirus are distinguished from other types of retroelments by the presence of an env gene in their genome .
38. The protein encoded by this gene allows retroviruses to enter and leave their host cell.
Retroviruses are therefore the only infectious type of retroelement , they spread from cell to cell, and also organism to organism.
pol gene also has a DNA polymerase activity, which enables it to synthesize a duplex DNA from the single stranded RNA . The enzyme has an
Rnase H activity , which can degrade RNA part of RNA-DNA hybrid.
. In the retroviral life cycle , a viral enzyme called reverse transcriptase initially copies the viral RNA genome into single-stranded DNA that is
complementary to the viral RNA; the same enzyme then catalyzes the synthesis of a complementary DNA strand.
The resulting double-stranded DNA is integrated into the chromosomal DNA of the infected cell by an integrase enzyme in the virion.
Finally, the integrated DNA, called a provirus, is transcribed by the host cell’s own RNA polymerase into RNA, which is either translated into
viral proteins or packaged within virion capsid proteins to form progeny virions that are released by budding from the host-cell membrane.
Because most retroviruses do not kill their host cells, infected cells can replicate, producing daughter cells with integrated proviral DNA. These
daughter cells continue to transcribe the proviral DNA and bud progeny virions.
39.
40. Retroviral life cycle.
Retroviruses have a genome of two identical copies of single-stranded RNA and an outer envelope.
Step 1 : After viral glycoproteins in the retroviral envelope interact with a specific host-cell membrane protein, the envelope fuses directly with the
plasma membrane, allowing entry of the nucleocapsid into the cytoplasm of the cell.
Step 2 : Viral reverse transcriptase and other proteins copy the viral ssRNA genome into a double-stranded DNA.
Step 3 : The viral dsDNA is transported into the nucleus and integrates into one of many possible sites in the host-cell chromosomal DNA. For
simplicity, only one host-cell chromosome is depicted.
Step 4 : The integrated viral DNA (provirus) is transcribed by the host-cell RNA polymerase, generating viral mRNAs (dark red) and viral genomic
RNA molecules (bright red). The host-cell machinery translates the viral mRNAs into glycoproteins and nucleocapsid proteins.
Step 5 : Progeny virions then assemble and are released by budding.
* Some retroviruses contain cancer-causing genes (oncogenes), and cells infected by such retroviruses are oncogenetically transformed into tumor
cells.
* Among the known human retroviruses are human T-cell lymphotrophic virus (HTLV), which causes a form of leukemia, and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
41. RETROTRANSPOSONS
* All eukaryotes studied from yeast to humans contain retrotransposons, mobile DNA elements that transpose through an RNA intermediate
utilizing a reverse transcriptase .
* These mobile elements are divided into two major categories, viral and nonviral retrotransposons.
* Viral retrotransposons are abundant in yeast (e.g., Ty elements) and in Drosophila (e.g., copia elements).
* In mammals, nonviral retrotransposons are the most common type of mobile element; Still, viral retrotransposons are estimated to account for
≈4 percent of human DNA.
42. Viral retrotransposons
General structure of eukaryotic viral retrotransposons
* The central protein-coding region is flanked by two long terminal repeats (LTRs), which are element-specific direct repeats.
* LTRs, the hallmark of these mobile elements, also are present in retroviral DNA.
* Like other mobile elements, integrated retrotransposons have short target-site direct repeats at their 3′ and 5′ ends.
43. * In addition to the short 5′ and 3′ direct repeats that are typical of all transposons, these retrotransposons are marked by the presence of LTRs
flanking the central protein-coding region.
* These long direct terminal repeats, containing 250–600 bp depending on the particular LTR retrotransposon, are characteristic of integrated
retroviral DNA and are critical to the life cycle of retroviruses.
* In addition to sharing LTRs with retroviruses, LTR retrotransposons encode all the proteins of the most common type of retroviruses, except for
the envelope proteins. Lacking these envelope proteins, LTR retrotransposons cannot bud from their host cell and infect other cells; however, they
can transpose to new sites in the DNA of their host cell.
* Because of their clear relationship with retroviruses, LTR retrotransposons are often called retrovirus-like elements.
* A key step in the retroviral life cycle is the formation of retroviral genomic RNA from integrated retroviral DNA .
* We describe this process in some detail here because it serves as a model for the generation of the RNA intermediate during the transposition of
LTR retrotransposons.
45. * the leftward retroviral LTR functions as a promoter that directs host-cell RNA polymerase to initiate transcription at the 5′ nucleotide of the roughly
20-base R sequence that is repeated at each end of the retroviral RNA.
* After the entire downstream retroviral DNA has been transcribed, the RNA sequence corresponding to the rightward LTR directs host-cell RNA-
processing enzymes to cleave the primary transcript and add a poly(A) tail at the 3′ end of the R sequence.
* The resulting retroviral RNA genome, which lacks a complete LTR, exits the nucleus and is packaged into a virion that buds from the host cell.
* After a retrovirus infects a cell, reverse transcription of its RNA genome by the retrovirus-encoded reverse transcriptase yields a double-stranded
DNA containing the cytosol.
* The double-stranded DNA, with an LTR at each end, is then transported into the nucleus in a complex with integrase, another enzyme encoded by
retroviruses.
* Retroviral integrases are closely related to the transposases encoded by DNA transposons and use a similar mechanism to insert the double-stranded
retroviral DNA into the host-cell genome.
* In this process, short direct repeats of the target-site sequence are generated at either end of the inserted viral DNA sequence.
46. * Although the mechanism of reverse transcription is complex, it is a critical aspect of the retrovirus life cycle.
* The process generates the complete 5′ LTR that functions as a promoter for initiation of transcription precisely at the 5′ nucleotide of the R
sequence, while the complete 3′ LTR functions as a poly(A) site leading to polyadenylation precisely at the 3′ nucleotide of the R sequence.
* Consequently, no nucleotides are lost from an LTR retrotransposon as it undergoes successive rounds of insertion, transcription, reverse
transcription, and reinsertion at a new site.
* As noted above, LTR retrotransposons encode reverse transcriptase and integrase.
* By analogy with retroviruses, these mobile elements move by a “copy-and-paste” mechanism whereby reverse transcriptase converts an RNA
copy of a donor element into DNA, which is inserted into a target site by integrase.
47. Generation of LTRs during reverse transcription of retroviral genomic RNA
48.
49. Generation of LTRs during reverse transcription of retroviral genomic RNA
* A complicated series of nine events generates a double-stranded DNA copy of the single-stranded RNA genome of a retrovirus (top).
* The genomic RNA is packaged in the virion with a retrovirus-specific cellular tRNA hybridized to a complementary sequence near its 5′ end
called the primer-binding site (PBS).
* The retroviral RNA has a short direct-repeat terminal sequence (R) at each end. The overall reaction is catalyzed by reverse transcriptase , which
catalyses polymerization of deoxyribonucleotides. Rnase also encoded in the viral RNA and packaged into the virion particle, digests the RNA
strand in a DNA-RNA hybrid.
* The entire process yields a double-stranded DNA molecule that is longer than the template RNA and has a long terminal repeat (LTR) at each end.
* The most common LTR retrotransposons in humans are called ERVs, for endogenous retroviruses.
50. Nonviral retrotransposons.
The most abundant mobile elements in mammals are retrotransposons that lack LTRs, sometimes called nonviral retrotransposons.
* These form two classes in mammalian genomes:
* 1 long interspersed elements (LINEs)
* 2 short interspersed elements (SINEs).
LINEs-
* In humans, full-length LINEs are about 6 kb long,
* Human DNA contains three major families of LINEs that are similar in their mechanism of transposition but differ in their sequences: L1, L2, and
L3 .
* Only members of the L1 family transpose in the contemporary human genome; apparently there are no remaining functional copies of L2 or L3.
* LINE sequences are present at roughly 900,000 sites in the human genome, accounting for a staggering 21 percent of total human DNA.
51. General structure of an L1 LINE element, a common type of eukaryotic nonviral retrotransposon
* LINEs are usually flanked by short direct repeats, the hallmark of mobile elements.
* It contain two long open reading frames :
* 1. ORF1, about 1 kb long, encodes an RNA-binding protein.
* 2. ORF2, about 4 kb long, encodes a protein that has a long region of homology with the reverse transcriptase of retroviruses and LTR
retrotransposons, but also exhibits DNA endonuclease activity.
* The length of the flanking direct repeats varies among copies of the element at different sites in the genome. The sequence of the direct repeats
appears to be generated from the target-site sequence during insertion.
* Although L1 elements do not contain LTRs, the A/T-rich region at the right end is thought to function in retro transposition.
52. * Evidence for the mobility of L1 elements first came from analysis of DNA cloned from humans with certain genetic diseases.
* DNA from these patients was found to carry mutations resulting from insertion of an L1 element into a gene , whereas no such element occurred in
the DNA of either parent.
* Since L1 elements do not contain LTRs, their mechanism of transposition through an RNA intermediate must differ from viral retro transposition
in which the LTRs play a crucial role.
* transcription of L1 is directed by promoter sequences located within the left end of the element. L1 elements also contain an A/T-rich region near
their right end, which generates a stretch of A residues in their RNA transcripts.
* The vast majority of LINEs in the human genome are truncated at their 5′ end, suggesting that reverse transcription was terminated before
completion .
* Because of this shortening, the average size of LINE elements is only about 900 bp, even though the full-length sequence is about 6 kb long
53. SINES
* The most abundant class of mobile elements in the human genome, SINEs constitute about 13 percent of total human DNA.
* Varying in length from about 100 to 400 base pairs.
* these retrotransposons do not encode protein, but most contain a 3′ AT-rich sequence similar to that in LINEs.
*SINEs are transcribed by the same nuclear RNA polymerase that transcribes genes encoding tRNAs, 5S rRNAs, and other small stable RNAs.
* Most likely, the ORF1 and ORF2 proteins expressed from full-length LINEs mediate reverse transcription and integration of SINEs .
* Consequently, SINEs can be viewed as parasites of the LINE symbionts, competing with LINE RNAs for binding, reverse transcription, and
integration by LINE-encoded ORF1 and ORF2.
54. * Because many of these repetitive sequences in human DNA were found to contain a recognition site for the restriction enzyme Alu I, they were
collectively called the Alu family.
*Alu sequences containing ≈300 base pairs are present at ≈1 million sites in the human genome, accounting for about 10 percent of the
total genomic DNA.
*Alu sequences are remarkably homologous to 7SL RNA, a small cellular RNA that is part of the signal-recognition particle. This cytoplasmic
ribonucleoprotein particle aids in the secretion of newly formed polypeptides through the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
* The initial evidence for the mobility of SINES came from analysis of DNA from a patient with neurofibromatosis, a genetic disorder marked
by the occurrence of multiple neuronal tumors called neurofibromas due to mutation in the NF1 gene.
* Like the retinal tumors that occur in hereditary retinoblastoma , neurofibromas develop only when both NF1 alleles carry a mutation. In one
individual with neurofibromatosis, one NF1 allele contains an inactivating Alu sequence; inactivating somatic mutations in the other NF1 allele
in peripheral neurons lead to the development of neurofibromas
55. SUMMARY
Most of the moderately repeated DNA sequences interspersed at multiple sites throughout the genomes of higher eukaryotes arose from mobile DNA
elements.
* Mobile DNA elements encode enzymes that can insert their sequence into new sites in genomic DNA.
* Mobile DNA elements that transpose to new sites directly as DNA are called transposons; those that first are transcribed into an RNA copy of the
element, which then is reverse-transcribed into DNA, are called retrotransposons . Both types generally produce short direct repeats at the site of
insertion, which flank the mobile element. The length of the direct repeats depends on the type of mobile element.
* The mobile DNA elements in bacteria — IS elements and bacterial transposons — move via DNA intermediates. Both encode transposase, but the
longer transposons also contain at least one other protein-coding gene, generally including a drug-resistance gene.
* Although transposons, similar in structure to bacterial IS elements, occur in eukaryotes (e.g., Drosophila P element), retrotransposons generally are
much more abundant, especially in higher eukaryotes.
* Viral retrotransposons are flanked by long terminal repeats (LTRs), similar to those in retroviral DNA, and, like retroviruses, encode reverse
transcriptase and integrase. They move in the genome by being transcribed into RNA, which then undergoes reverse transcription and integration into
the host-cell chromosome.
* Nonviral retrotransposons lack LTRs and have an A/T-rich stretch at one end. These mobile elements are thought to move by an unusual nonviral
retro transposition mechanism.
56. * The most abundant mobile elements in vertebrates are two types of nonviral retrotransposons called LINES and SINES. Both types appear to
have caused mutations associated with human genetic diseases.
* SINES exhibit extensive homology with small cellular RNAs transcribed by RNA polymerase III. The most common SINES in humans
frequently contain a site for the restriction enzyme Alu I and consequently are called Alu sequences. These ≈300-bp sequences are scattered
throughout the human genome, constituting ≈5 percent of the total DNA.
* Although mobile DNA elements appear to serve no beneficial function to an individual organism, they most likely influenced evolution
significantly.
57. REFERENCES :
LODISH, MOLECULAR CELL BIOLOGY, CHAPTER – 5, PAGE NO. ( FROM – 258 TO 260 ), CHAPTER – 8, PAGE NO. ( FROM 354 TO 365)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21495/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_genetic_elements
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4486318/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/enterobacteria-phage-mu
https://sites.cns.utexas.edu/harsheylab/bacteriophage-mu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tn10
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-79795-8_3
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/~smaloy/MicrobialGenetics/topics/transposons/non-repl-tpn.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867400817882
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC125497/