This document discusses microbiology and provides information on:
- The definition and branches of microbiology including bacteriology, virology, mycology, and parasitology.
- The classification of microorganisms as prokaryotes or eukaryotes.
- Characteristics of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.
- Methods used to classify bacteria including shape, gram stain, oxygen requirements, pH tolerance, pathogenicity and drug susceptibility.
Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations.
Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations.
To know what is Microbiology.
How much important of microbiology knowledge in our life.
Why need to know about Microbiology .
What type of diseases can occur in our body.
What is the role of Pharmaceutical Microbiology.
How can we prevent from the diseases.
Medical microbiology is the study of causative agents of infectious diseases of humans and their reactions to such infections. In other words it deals with etiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, specific treatment and control of infection (immunization).
Capsule is an layer around the bacteria cell which gives bacteria the protection and pathogenicity. Staining such an layer is difficult with the normal stains so it is necessary to stain the background and the cell itself which makes the capsule appear colourless.
Lecture-1 Introduction to microbiology updated.pptxRashaAlNagar
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
CAP usually caused by a single organism
Even with extensive diagnostic testing, most investigators cannot identify a specific etiology for CAP in ≥ 50% of patients.
Caused by a variety of Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common pathogen 60-70% of the time
To know what is Microbiology.
How much important of microbiology knowledge in our life.
Why need to know about Microbiology .
What type of diseases can occur in our body.
What is the role of Pharmaceutical Microbiology.
How can we prevent from the diseases.
Medical microbiology is the study of causative agents of infectious diseases of humans and their reactions to such infections. In other words it deals with etiology, pathogenesis, laboratory diagnosis, specific treatment and control of infection (immunization).
Capsule is an layer around the bacteria cell which gives bacteria the protection and pathogenicity. Staining such an layer is difficult with the normal stains so it is necessary to stain the background and the cell itself which makes the capsule appear colourless.
Lecture-1 Introduction to microbiology updated.pptxRashaAlNagar
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
Microaspiration from nasopharynx: S. Pneumonia
Inhalation: TB, viruses, Legionella
Aspiration: anaerobes
Bloodborne: Staph endocarditis, septic emboli
Direct extension: trauma
CAP usually caused by a single organism
Even with extensive diagnostic testing, most investigators cannot identify a specific etiology for CAP in ≥ 50% of patients.
Caused by a variety of Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common pathogen 60-70% of the time
Microbiology
study of organisms too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Microbes or Microorganisms
commonly referred to as “germs” or “bugs”
include bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, protozoa and helminths.
Prions (“infectious proteins”) are recent addition.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
1. Microbiology
Definition
Branch of biology that deals with the smallest living
organisms, which cannot be seen by naked human eye.
Branches of Microbiology
Bacteriology
Virology
Mycology
Parasitology
2. Bacteriology - Study of Bacteria - the smallest, simplest
single-celled organisms.
Virology - Study of Viruses - minute and ultrasmall
unicellular particles
Mycology - Study of Fungi
Parasitology - Study of protozoa and helminths (worms)
3. Classification of micro-organisms
Definition Organisms without a nuclear Organisms with a nuclear
membrane surrounding the genetic membrane surrounding the
material genetic material
The micro-organisms are broadly classified into Prokaryotes and
Eukarytoes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
4. Nucleus Prokaryotic None Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleic Acid Both RNA & Either RNA & Both RNA & Both RNA &
DNA DNA DNA DNA
Replication Binary No Binary Binary Binary
Fission Fission Fission Fission &
Budding
Motility Some None None Most
Distinguishing Features of Bacteria, Viruses,
Fungi and Parasites
Features Bacteria Viruses Fungi Parasites
5. Methods that the help the microbiologist to
classify bacteria
Bacterial shape eg. coccus, bacillus
Gram stain eg. gram (+)ve, gram (-)ve
Oxygen requirement eg aerobe, anaerobe
pH eg. Acidophilic
Pathogenicity eg. commensal, pathogen
Drug susceptibility eg. sensitive, resistant
6. Shape of the Bacteria
Bacteria Shape & Feature
Coccus Spherical or dot-like
Bacillus Cylindrical or rodlike. Differ considerably in length
& diameter. Some are slennder, some rectangular
with squared ends and some shaped like clubs.
Coccobacilli Very short (stubby) bacillus
Vibrio Coma shaped bacillus which vibrate
Spirillum Helix-shaped and curved, high degree of motility
characterized by corkscrew movement
Spirochaete Another type of spiral-shaped bacteria, having as
many as 20 coils
11. Bacterial anatomy
All bacteria are prokaryotes and hence they possess the
same anatomy.
I. cell envelope → It has two components
Cell wall
Cell membrane
a) Cell wall
This is the outermost covering of the bacterium which
prevents the cell from bursting.
12. Bacterial anatomy
Cell Wall Structure :
Cell Wall Component: Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria
Peptidoglycan Thick layer Small amounts
Teichoic acids Yes (has) none
Lipopolysaccarides Small amount Large amount (endotoxin!)
Periplasmic space absent Present
13.
14. Functions of Cell-Wall
Provides shape to bacterium.
Gives rigidity to organism.
Protects from environment.
Contains components toxic to host.
15. Atypical Cell Walls
Genus Mycoplasma → no cell walls. Antibiotics like
penicillins that interfere with the cell wall assembly are not
helpful in treating this infection
b) Cell Membrane
The boundary layer of the cytoplasm that lies just beneath the
cell-wall. Primarily it allows nutrients to pass inside the cell
and waste products out of the cell.
16. II Cytoplasm
A gelatin substance bound by cell-membrane.
III Nucleoid
The nuclear region that contains the genetic material of a cell.
A single, circular, double stranded DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
molecule without a nuclear membrane
IV Ribosomes
Small cytoplasmic particles, the sites of PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
17. V Capsule
It is outermost (outside cells wall) gelatinous layer of
polysaccharides and proteins secreted by many bacteria.
Function :- to avoid phagocytosis (ingestion of microorganism
by the cell called phagocyte)
VI Flagella
Long strands of protein that enable many species of bacteria to
move by rotating.
18. VII PILI
Bristlelike appendages primarily found in gram (-ve) bacteria that
extend from cell membrane. ‘Common pili help bacteria to adhere to
different surfaces thereby enhancing their ability to cause disease.’
Sex pili aid in the transfer of DNA among bacteria. (conjugation)
VIII Endospores
Formed inside the parent cell. A highly resistant stage of bacteria very
difficult to kill the bacteria in this stage.
IX Periplasmic Space
The region between the inner and outer membranes of gram negative
bacterial cell.
19. Growth and multiplication of bacteria
Binary Fission
Bacteria divide by binary fission. Cell divide approximately
evenly into two daughter cells, without exchange of
genetic material between two cells.
Cell wall Septum Cytoplasm
20. Bacteria Nutrition
a) Oxygen
Micro aerophlic grow best in the presence of low O2 tension
Depending on the influence of oxygen
Aerobes Anaerboes
Require O2 for growth Obligate Facultative
Obligate aerobes
Grow only in the presence of O2
eg. Vibrio cholerae
Grow only in the
absence of O2
Ordinarily aerobic
but also grow in
the absence of O2
21. b) Carbon dioxide :
Bacteria require small amounts of carbon dioxide
Capno-philic:
Much higher levels of CO2 for growth
c) Temperature
‘Optimum temperature' in case of most of the pathogenic
bacteria = 37o
c
22. d) Moisture :
e) pH :
Optimum pH = 7.2-7.6
Acidophilic bacteria:
Grow under acidic conditions eg. Lactobacillus
(Vibrio cholerae tolerates high degree of alkalinity)
27. SOME COMMON TERMS AND THEIR
DEFINITIONS
PATHOGEN
The term pathogen most commonly is used to refer to infectious organisms. These include bacteria,
protozoa, viruses and fungi. The term pathogen was devised about 1880 and was compounded from patho-
meaning disease + -gen indicating a producer. Hence, a disease producer
HOST
An organism or cell culture in which a PATHHOGEN can replicate itself.
INFECTION
An infection is the colonization of a host organism by pathogens
COLONIZATION
Colonization occurs whenever any one or more pathogens populate an area.
28. SOME COMMON TERMS AND THEIR
DEFINITIONS
1.PRIMARY INFECTIONS :
It is an initial infection for which the patient is been treated by the physician
2.SECONDARY INFECTIONS :
It occurs during the treatment of primary infection, if the individual develops another
infection in some other system / organ.
3.SUPERINFECTION :
Antibacterial treatment may sometimes destroy the normal intestinal flora. This
weakens the defense in immune system. At the point of time the facultative
organisms may invade and cause a Super infection.
5.CROSS INFECTIONS :
When a new infection sets from another host in a previously infected patient.
29. Skin (Intact) Dryness (Keratinized), Wounds, excess moisture
acid pH microbial flora of skin,
(sweat etc.), serous discharge constant shedding
Eye Tears contain the enzyme Dryness of the eye, altered
lysozyme lysozyme which lyses bacteria
Host Defence Mechanisms
Non-specific immunity of a human being. The one which does
not care nor remember, the type of microbes invading the body.
Body Site Defence Conditions that
Mechanism encourage entry
30. Respiratory Mucous and ciliated cells Reduced movement of
tract constantly move mucous mucous trapped particles and
trapped particles and microorganisms by cilia as
microorganisms to throat. in smoking, viral infection etc.
Coughing, Sneezing
Gastrointestinal The highly acidic pH (1.5) Reduced stomach acid
Tract of stomach secretions, (achlorhydria) and raising of it's
enzyme Pepsin pH by regular ingestion of
antacids.
Host Defence Mechanisms
Body Site Defence Conditions that
Mechanism encourage entry
31. Urethra & Vagina Flushing action of urine & Reduced members of
Acidic pH of vaginal Lactobacilli and other vaginal
secretions promoting the flora from douching, soaps
growth of Lactobacilli- menopause, Antibiotic therapy,
(Non-pathogenic) during Short Urethra, sexual
child bearing age. intercourse with carrier
partner
Host Defence Mechanisms
Body Site Defence Conditions that
Mechanism encourage entry
32. Normal microbial flora of the human body
Prevent or interfere with the colonization or invasion of the body by
pathogens
Raise the overall immune status of the host against pathogens. But may
cause confusion in diagnosis
The normal flora of the body
Body site Normal flora
Skin Staphylococcus, Streptococcus faecalis, viridans
E.Coli, Candida
Conjunctiva Corynebacterium xerosis, staphylococcus
Upper respiratory tract Staphylococcus, streptococcus, haemophilius,
E.coli, proteus
Intestinal tract Lactobacillus, anaerobic, streptococci, bacteroides,
clostridia, E.coli, proteus, candida
Genitourinary tract Mycobacterium smegmatis, Streptococci, candida,
staphyloccus epidermides
37. Antimicrobials
An antimicrobial is the drug that kills (or inhibits the
multiplication of) microorganisms.
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial that is
produced by microbes and is harmful to other
microbes.
An antibacterial is the antibiotic used to inhibit or
kill bacteria.
38.
39. Antibacterial Drugs
Mechanism Why antibacterials do not Examples
affect human and animal cell?
Damage cell membrane, High toxicity to animals and Polymixins
allow contents to leak out humans. Topical use only
(Bactericidal)
Inhibits cell wall synthesis Animals and humans do not Penicillins
(Bactericidal) have cell wall hence are not Cephalosporins
affected Vancomycin
Inhibitors of folic acid Animals and humans get folic Sulfonamides
synthesis (need this to acid from diet (do not Trimethoprim
make DNA for growth synthesize it) Co-trimoxazole
and multiplicaction.)
40. Antibacterial Drugs
Inhibitors of DNA function Drugs used affect Quinolone, metronidazole
need DNA cell growth bacterial/fungal cells more Rifampicin
than animal and human cells
Inhibitors of protein High doses of drugs can Tetracycline
synthesis0 Proteins are affect animals and humans Aminoglycosides
synthesized in cell structure because some ribosome are Chloramphenicol
called ribosome's and these similar to those in bacteria Macrolides
are different in bacteria and
human
41. Antibiotic resistance
There are different mechanisms for development of resistance
1) Production of bacterial enzymes which can destroy the antibiotic
eg. Beta lactamases from staphylococci acting on penicillins and
cephalopsorins.
2) Altering targetsite (Binding protein)
Aleteration in the methicillin binding protein of staphyloccocus leading
to methilillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
3) Changing the permeability of cell walls to inhibit entry of antibiotic in
bacterial cell.
4) Expelling out the antibiotic by a pump mechanism (rare mechanism)
5) Lastly, the widespread and inappropriate use of antibiotics contributes
to the development of at least some type of resistance.
42. General Properties of Viruses
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
No cellular organisation
Contain only one type of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA,
never both
Dependent on the host cell for their multiplication
They do not multiply by binary fission but by some
complex mechanism
Unaffected by antibacterial antibiotics
43. Mycology
Fungi are eukaryotes
They have a cell wall and typical cell organelles
Nucleus contains double standed DNA
They are unicellular or multicellular
They divide by budding
Moulds - Filamentous fungi
Dimorphic fungi - fungi occuring in round cell form as well as
filamentous form
Mycelium - Mass of hyphae
44. Parasitology
Parasite : An animal /plant which lives in or upon another
organism (technically called as host) and draws its
nutrients directly from it
Host : An organisms which harbors the parasite and
provides the nourishment and shelter
Parasitology : Study of protoza and helminths
Protozoa : single celled parasite
Helminths : (Helminth =Worm) multicellular, elogated flat/
round bodies.
45. Trophozoite Cyst
Actively motile non motile
Parasite can acquire their Cannot acquire their
nutrition in this stage nutrition in this stage
Gets affected easily by Does not get affected
outside environment by outside environment
(Resistant-stage)
Pseudopodia (False foot)
Ectoplasm
Nucleas
Endoplasm
Thick cystcoal
Nucleus
Protozoa : Can Exists in two Forms
