This document provides an overview of memory and knowledge. It discusses the different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also covers how memory is encoded and retrieved. Key aspects of knowledge including schemas, associative networks, prototypes, and hierarchical categorization are explained. Factors that influence memory and retrieval such as encoding techniques, retrieval cues, and individual differences are summarized.

1. Memory and Knowledge

2. A Model of Information Processing
Exposure,
Attention
Perception Understanding Outcome:
Attitudes
sensations information
Memory / Prior Knowledge
Individual
Consumer
Environmental
Characteristics
Stimuli
beliefs

3. 3
Exhibit 4.1:
Chapter
Overview --
Memory and
Knowledge

4. Chapter Overview
4
 What Is Memory?
 What Are the Types of Memory?
 How Memory Is Enhanced
 Knowledge Content, Structure and Flexibility
 Retrieval Failures and Errors
 How Retrieval Is Enhanced

5. Memory and its functions
5
Memory: “Personal storehouse of knowledge”
Retrieval: “The process of remembering”
Knowledge and Attitudes <--> Memory
Memory and Retrieval <--> Decision Making

6. Taxonomy of Memory
6
Memory
Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory
Episodic memory Semantic
memory

7. Memory: Process Flow
7
Long-term
memory
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Recirculation

8. Types of Memory
 Sensory Memory
 Sensory experiences stored temporarily in memory
 Short-Term Memory (STM)
 Where incoming information is encoded
 Limited: can hold only a few pieces of information at a time
 Short-Lived: cannot hold information for very long
 Discursive vs. Imagery Processing
 Dual-Coding
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9. Types of Memory (cont.)
 Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 Where information is permanently stored for later use
 Autobiographical (Episodic) Memory
 Past experiences  primarily sensory (e.g. images, sounds)
 Acquisitions, consumption episodes, dispositions etc.
 Semantic Memory
 Knowledge about “things”
 Detach from specific episodes
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10. 10
Explicit or Implicit
 Explicit Memory
Consumers are consciously aware that they remember something
 Recognition: Determining whether the stimulus has been
encountered before
 Recall:Ability to retrieve information (free recall vs. cued
recall)
 Implicit Memory
Consumers are NOT consciously aware that they remember
something

11. 11
Explicit Memory
 Recall
“Please name all the brands of hamburgers that you can think of…”
----------------------------- -----------------------------
----------------------------- -----------------------------
----------------------------- -----------------------------
 Recognition
“Please check all the brands of hamburgers that you have
heard of…”
___ McDonalds ____Triple O’s
____Mos Burger ____Freshness Burger
____Burger King ____Si Sun Fast Food
____KFC ____Monster Burger

12. 12
Implicit Memory
Free Association
◦ “What is the first word that comes
to mind when I mention
McDonalds?”
Fragment Completion
• “Fill in the blanks to make a word.”
 s _ o _
• Stem Completion
• “Fill in the blanks to make a word.”
 d i s _ _ _

13. How Memory Is Enhanced
 Chunking
 Grouping items to process them as a unit
 Rehearsal
 Actively reviewing information in LTM
 Recirculation
 Simple repetition of information within STM
 Elaboration
 Processing information more deeply
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Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b
Y=mx+b

14. 14
389610578

15. Knowledge Content: Schemas
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The set of associations linked to a concept
 Schemas
 We have schemas for everything
 Places, people, brands, even ourselves!
 Scripts: sequence of actions

16. Professional Singer Idol

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Associative networks
Link Strength: Strength of
associations
◦ Stronger link  More accessible
Spreading of Activation:
Remembering one thing from another
◦ Depending on MAO
◦ Priming: Activation outside conscious
awareness
• Favorability, uniqueness, salience

18. Schema example
McDonalds ?

19. 1919
Associative Network
McDonald’s
Big Mac
Fries
Tasty
Convenient
LG5
Burger King
Noodles and
Congee
Cathay Pacific
Good service

22. Knowledge Content (cont.)
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 Images
 Brand Image: A set of distinctive associations stored in a brand schema
 Brand Personality: The set of associations that reflects “human” aspects of the
brand
 Applications
 Brand Extension: Same brand name, different category – leverage the existing
schema
 Licensing: Sell the rights to your brand name
 Brand Alliance: Two brand names on one product
 Repositioning: Changing schemas, images, or personalities
 Product crisis: brand personality

23. Knowledge Structure
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 Taxonomic categorization
 A system of classification
 Maximal vs. minimal similarity
 Properties: Graded and hierarchical
 Graded structure
 Category members are different in terms of how well they represent
the category

24. Prototypes
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The “best example” of a category
 Example:
 Theme park:
 Canned soup:
 Cereal:
 Ketchup:
 What Affects Prototypicality
 Maximum shared associations within a category; minimum across
categories
 Frequency of experienced membership
 Pioneer / first-mover

25. Knowledge Structure (cont.)
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 Hierarchical Structure (e.g. Park N Shop)
 Superordinate Level
 Basic Level
 Subordinate Level
 Correlated Associations
 Associations that frequently occur together within a schema

26. 26
Exhibit 4.6: Hierarchical Structure
RESTAURANT
S
Fast-food,
Cafes
Western,
Japanese
McDonalds,
Mos Burger

27. Knowledge Flexibility
 Goal-Derived Categories
 Classifying things together because they satisfy the same goals
 Different way of categorizing (as opposed to taxonomic categorization)
 E.g. things to buy for a party
 Construal Level Theory: high vs. low construal
 High construal: abstract thinking (e.g. desirability)
 Low construal: concrete thinking (e.g. feasibility)
 Factors: time; geographical distance

28. Why Consumers Differ in Knowledge
 Culture (different sets of associations, category members,
prototypes, etc.)
 Level of Expertise (“Ability” to process new information –
experts vs. novices)

29. Retrieval: Accessing information from the
semantic network
 Retrieval Failures
 Decay: Weakening of nodes or links over time
 Sleeper effect: remember the message, but not the
source
 Interference: Signals getting mixed up
 E.g. similar ads
 Primacy and Recency Effects
 Greater memory for information that comes first or
last in a sequence
 Retrieval Errors
 Memory is subject to distortion and confusion

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Retrieval: Marketing Implications
 As a communication objective
 Increase recall of brand name, attributes, benefits, etc.
 Influencing consumer choices
 Internal search  useful input for attitudes and choice
 Advertising effectiveness
 Measures of recognition, recall, persistence
 Segmentation
 Segment the customers according to how well they can remember

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How Retrieval Is Enhanced
Characteristics of the Stimulus
◦ Salience: e.g. multipage ads
◦ Prototypicality
◦ Redundant cues: information that go together naturally
◦ Medium in which the stimulus was processed
What the Stimulus Is LinkedTo
◦ Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that facilitate the activation of memory
◦ Internal cues
◦ External cues: e.g. brand name, logos, packages

32. The Geico gecko is a classic example of an effective retrieval cue. Just seeing
the little lizard evokes the insurance company’s brand name. Geico has used
repetition to ensure that the gecko/Geico link is stored in consumers’ long-
term memory.While the message is the same, the execution of the ads
changes to prevent habituation and wear-out.
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33. How Retrieval Is Enhanced
 How a Stimulus Is Processed in STM
 Imagery processing: processing of information in sensory form
 Discursive processing: processing of information as words
 Dual Coding: Imagery + Discursive Processing
 Consumer Characteristics
 Mood
 Expertise
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