This document describes a graduate project submitted by Zainab Falaih Hasan Ulla Ahmed Ouda for the degree of Bachelor of Automated Manufacturing Engineering. The project involves designing and building a prototype of a black line tracking robot. The robot uses sensors and a microcontroller to follow a black line on a white surface and maneuver turns. It is intended to function autonomously within an automated factory environment. The document provides background on the project, acknowledges those involved in advising and supporting the work, and outlines the various chapters that will comprise the project report, including the robot design, hardware components, implementation details, results, and proposals for future work.
The document describes a line following robot project submitted by four students to the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Jagannath University, Jaipur. It includes an acknowledgment, index, and sections on the circuit diagram, sensors, microcontroller, motor driver, source code, problems encountered, and applications of line following robots. The overall goal of the project is to build a robot that can sense a line and maneuver to stay on course using feedback from infrared sensors and a microcontroller to control motors via a motor driver.
Edgefxkits.com has a wide range of electronic projects ideas that are primarily helpful for ECE, EEE and EIE students and the ideas can be applied for real life purposes as well.
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Edgefx provides free verified electronic projects kits around the world with abstracts, circuit diagrams, and free electronic software. We provide guidance manual for Do It Yourself Kits (DIY) with the modules at best price along with free shipping.
The document discusses various types of sensors and machine vision systems. It describes position sensors including piezoelectric sensors, LVDTs, optical encoders, and resolvers. It also covers range sensors, touch sensors, cameras, and image processing techniques. The key applications mentioned are inspection, identification, visual serving, and navigation.
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering forces. Robot kinematics specifically refers to the analytical study of robot motion and how robotic systems move. There are two main types of kinematics: forward kinematics and inverse kinematics. Forward kinematics uses the robotic equations to determine the position of the end effector given the joint parameters. Inverse kinematics determines the necessary joint parameters to achieve a desired end effector position and orientation. Inverse kinematics is important for robot trajectory planning but is generally more difficult than forward kinematics.
Pneumatic Drives-Hydraulic Drives-Mechanical Drives-Electrical Drives-D.C. Servo Motors, Stepper Motors, A.C. Servo Motors-Salient Features, Applications and Comparison of all these Drives, End Effectors-Grippers-Mechanical Grippers, Pneumatic and Hydraulic- Grippers, Magnetic Grippers, Vacuum Grippers; Two Fingered and Three Fingered Grippers; Internal Grippers and External Grippers; Selection and Design Considerations.
Obstacle Avoidance Robot Summer training Presentation Wasi Abbas
i did an extremely hard work on it. I believe that you all my friends will surely get the benefit of this presentation. As a student of B.tech I just wish to assist those who always ready to assist another one. thanks for reading......
The document describes a proposed design for an underwater robot called Aquabot. It lists potential applications including collecting underwater samples, detecting gases, and monitoring wildlife. The design is adaptive, incorporating features from existing robots like hovering and detecting oil. Key features of Aquabot include a streamlined shape, fins for maneuvering, a camera for viewing up to 3 feet, and capacity for additional processing units. It will be remotely controlled via wireless technology and a joystick. The structure uses thrust from a pump for translation and directional fins for steering. The team estimates costs to be around $5,000 and provides a list of the main components.
The document describes an autonomous maze solving robot project. The robot uses three ultrasonic sensors to detect the maze walls and two servo motors controlled by a microcontroller to navigate. The microcontroller receives distance readings from the sensors and instructs the motor driver which direction to move the motors to avoid obstacles as it solves the maze. Components include an Arduino, ultrasonic sensors, servo motors, batteries and other basic electronics. The robot is programmed to use an obstacle avoidance algorithm to autonomously solve mazes without human interference.
The document describes a line following robot project submitted by four students to the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Jagannath University, Jaipur. It includes an acknowledgment, index, and sections on the circuit diagram, sensors, microcontroller, motor driver, source code, problems encountered, and applications of line following robots. The overall goal of the project is to build a robot that can sense a line and maneuver to stay on course using feedback from infrared sensors and a microcontroller to control motors via a motor driver.
Edgefxkits.com has a wide range of electronic projects ideas that are primarily helpful for ECE, EEE and EIE students and the ideas can be applied for real life purposes as well.
http://www.edgefxkits.com/
Visit our page to get more ideas on popular electronic projects developed by professionals.
Edgefx provides free verified electronic projects kits around the world with abstracts, circuit diagrams, and free electronic software. We provide guidance manual for Do It Yourself Kits (DIY) with the modules at best price along with free shipping.
The document discusses various types of sensors and machine vision systems. It describes position sensors including piezoelectric sensors, LVDTs, optical encoders, and resolvers. It also covers range sensors, touch sensors, cameras, and image processing techniques. The key applications mentioned are inspection, identification, visual serving, and navigation.
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering forces. Robot kinematics specifically refers to the analytical study of robot motion and how robotic systems move. There are two main types of kinematics: forward kinematics and inverse kinematics. Forward kinematics uses the robotic equations to determine the position of the end effector given the joint parameters. Inverse kinematics determines the necessary joint parameters to achieve a desired end effector position and orientation. Inverse kinematics is important for robot trajectory planning but is generally more difficult than forward kinematics.
Pneumatic Drives-Hydraulic Drives-Mechanical Drives-Electrical Drives-D.C. Servo Motors, Stepper Motors, A.C. Servo Motors-Salient Features, Applications and Comparison of all these Drives, End Effectors-Grippers-Mechanical Grippers, Pneumatic and Hydraulic- Grippers, Magnetic Grippers, Vacuum Grippers; Two Fingered and Three Fingered Grippers; Internal Grippers and External Grippers; Selection and Design Considerations.
Obstacle Avoidance Robot Summer training Presentation Wasi Abbas
i did an extremely hard work on it. I believe that you all my friends will surely get the benefit of this presentation. As a student of B.tech I just wish to assist those who always ready to assist another one. thanks for reading......
The document describes a proposed design for an underwater robot called Aquabot. It lists potential applications including collecting underwater samples, detecting gases, and monitoring wildlife. The design is adaptive, incorporating features from existing robots like hovering and detecting oil. Key features of Aquabot include a streamlined shape, fins for maneuvering, a camera for viewing up to 3 feet, and capacity for additional processing units. It will be remotely controlled via wireless technology and a joystick. The structure uses thrust from a pump for translation and directional fins for steering. The team estimates costs to be around $5,000 and provides a list of the main components.
The document describes an autonomous maze solving robot project. The robot uses three ultrasonic sensors to detect the maze walls and two servo motors controlled by a microcontroller to navigate. The microcontroller receives distance readings from the sensors and instructs the motor driver which direction to move the motors to avoid obstacles as it solves the maze. Components include an Arduino, ultrasonic sensors, servo motors, batteries and other basic electronics. The robot is programmed to use an obstacle avoidance algorithm to autonomously solve mazes without human interference.
The document describes an obstacle avoiding robot created by four group members using an Arduino UNO, ultrasonic sensor, DC motor driver, and connecting wires. The robot senses obstacles in its path using the ultrasonic sensor, avoids obstacles by reversing or turning, and resumes moving forward once the path is clear. The robot's program uses the ultrasonic sensor readings to determine its speed and maneuvering.
This document is a term paper report submitted by Priya Hada, a 5th semester B.Tech student in Electronics and Communication Engineering at Amity University Rajasthan. The report is about a line follower robot and includes an introduction, hardware description, working procedure, software skills used, and conclusions. The introduction provides background on line follower robots and describes their use in industrial applications to transport materials along predetermined paths. The hardware section details the basic components used including an AT89C51 microcontroller, IR sensors, motor driver circuitry, and a power supply.
The document describes a path following robot project created by engineering students. It uses IR sensors to detect a black path on a white surface and a PIC microcontroller to process sensor inputs and control motors to follow the path. It provides a block diagram of the robot's components and architecture. It also details the algorithm used by the microcontroller to determine motor movements based on sensor readings to navigate straight paths and turns.
These slides have been made by the members of roboVITics club - The Official Robotics Club of VIT. It deals with the basic concepts related to making a Line Follower Robot.
For details, visit http://maxEmbedded.com/
http://robovitics.in/
The document describes the components, working, and applications of a line following robot. It consists of the following key components: IR sensors to detect the line, an Arduino UNO microcontroller, an L293D motor driver IC, and two geared motors. The IR sensors detect the visual line on the floor and send signals to the Arduino, which uses the motor driver IC to control the direction of the two motors accordingly. The line following robot is able to follow the line path, make turns when detecting breaks in the line, and has applications in industrial automation.
The advent of Mobile Robotics changed the definition of robotics and brought in some very interesting technologies paving the way for cutting edge sciences like AI, Behaviour Based Systems, etc
This document describes a student robotics project. The project involves building a robot that can sense obstacles using IR sensors, avoid obstacles autonomously, and resume its path. The robot is controlled by an AVR ATmega16 microcontroller. It uses an IR sensor to detect obstacles and an L293D motor driver and DC motors for movement. When an obstacle is detected, the microcontroller diverts the robot left or right to avoid the obstacle before resuming its forward motion. The project aims to create a mobile robot that can navigate independently within certain limitations.
This document describes the design of an automatic pick and place robot created by students. The robot uses a robotic arm with a gripper to pick objects from one box and place them in another box moving along linear guide ways. It analyzes how the robot can increase productivity over manual labor by working faster and without breaks. Diagrams and descriptions explain the mechanical and electrical components of the robot including the lead screw, ball bearings, gripper, manipulator, power supply, and PIC microcontroller used to control the robotic movements.
The line follower robot detects and follows a black line on a white surface using infrared sensors. It continuously corrects itself to stay on the track without human help. The sensors detect light reflected from the surface to determine if the line is centered, left, or right of the robot and signal the motors to move forward or turn accordingly. Potential applications include transport in factories, hospitals, museums, and more.
The document discusses robot kinematics and programming. It covers topics like robot joints and links, forward and inverse kinematics, position representation, homogeneous transformations, teach pendants, robot programming methods including leadthrough and textual languages, interpolation schemes, and generations of robot programming languages. Examples of concepts like translation, rotation, and programming commands are provided.
This project report summarizes the design and working of a line follower robot. It discusses the components used including an LM324 comparator IC, AT89C51 microprocessor, L293D H-bridge motor driver, and IR transmitter and receiver. It explains how the IR sensors detect the line and the microprocessor controls the motors to follow the line by turning when sensors detect line edges. The working principle section describes the robot's line detection and movement logic in detail. Applications mentioned include industrial transport, automated vehicles, and museum tour guides.
An introduction to Autonomous mobile robotsZahra Sadeghi
This document provides an introduction and overview of autonomous mobile robots and various techniques used in their development, including:
- Simulation studies allow researchers to test robot behaviors without building physical robots.
- The Khepera robot is a small, low-cost platform that has been used widely in research due its modularity and accessibility.
- Fuzzy logic, neuro-fuzzy systems, evolutionary robotics, and genetic programming are some methods explored for developing autonomous robot control systems without explicit programming. Co-evolution and complex environments can generate more advanced robot behaviors.
This robot follows a black line on a bright surface or white line on a dark surface using IR sensors to detect the line. It uses a microcontroller, IR sensors, motor driver, and DC motors to sense the line and drive the wheels to stay on the line. When the sensors detect the line on one side, the microcontroller stops that side's motor to turn the robot.
2. block diagram and components of embedded systemVikas Dongre
The document discusses the key hardware components of an embedded system, including:
- An embedded processor that has a control unit and execution unit to fetch and execute instructions.
- A power supply to power the system, which may be an external or internal source like a battery.
- A reset circuit that starts processor instruction execution from a default address on power up.
- A clock circuit that controls instruction execution time and machine cycles.
- An interrupt controller to handle interrupts from processes and multiple interrupts simultaneously.
- Timers to schedule tasks and provide a real-time clock function.
- Memory like ROM, RAM, and flash to store the program and data internally without a disk.
- I/
Obstacle Avoiding robot is a self thinking robot which can take decisions itself using programmed brain without any guidance from human beings. In our Project we use Infrared to sense obstacles and take movements accordingly. Our Project
mainly used in military application, small toys and also used in mines by increasing IR sensors.
Robotics is the Engineering science and technology of robots, and their design, manufacture, application, and Structural disposition.
Robotics is related to Electronics, Mechanics, and Software.
The term “Robotics” was coined by Isaac Asimov in his 1941 science fiction Short story “Liar”.
This document describes a line following robot project created by students at the Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology and Science Indore. The robot uses 3 IR sensor pairs and 2 motors to follow a black line on a white surface. It works by using the IR sensors to detect the line and send signals to the motor control circuitry, which instructs the motors to move the robot forward or turn as needed to stay on the line. The document discusses the components, working model, block diagram, applications and conclusions of the project. It proposes areas for future work, such as using a microcontroller and color sensors to add obstacle avoidance and other capabilities to the robot.
The document describes an obstacle avoiding robot created by four group members using an Arduino UNO, ultrasonic sensor, DC motor driver, and connecting wires. The robot senses obstacles in its path using the ultrasonic sensor, avoids obstacles by reversing or turning, and resumes moving forward once the path is clear. The robot's program uses the ultrasonic sensor readings to determine its speed and maneuvering.
This document is a term paper report submitted by Priya Hada, a 5th semester B.Tech student in Electronics and Communication Engineering at Amity University Rajasthan. The report is about a line follower robot and includes an introduction, hardware description, working procedure, software skills used, and conclusions. The introduction provides background on line follower robots and describes their use in industrial applications to transport materials along predetermined paths. The hardware section details the basic components used including an AT89C51 microcontroller, IR sensors, motor driver circuitry, and a power supply.
The document describes a path following robot project created by engineering students. It uses IR sensors to detect a black path on a white surface and a PIC microcontroller to process sensor inputs and control motors to follow the path. It provides a block diagram of the robot's components and architecture. It also details the algorithm used by the microcontroller to determine motor movements based on sensor readings to navigate straight paths and turns.
These slides have been made by the members of roboVITics club - The Official Robotics Club of VIT. It deals with the basic concepts related to making a Line Follower Robot.
For details, visit http://maxEmbedded.com/
http://robovitics.in/
The document describes the components, working, and applications of a line following robot. It consists of the following key components: IR sensors to detect the line, an Arduino UNO microcontroller, an L293D motor driver IC, and two geared motors. The IR sensors detect the visual line on the floor and send signals to the Arduino, which uses the motor driver IC to control the direction of the two motors accordingly. The line following robot is able to follow the line path, make turns when detecting breaks in the line, and has applications in industrial automation.
The advent of Mobile Robotics changed the definition of robotics and brought in some very interesting technologies paving the way for cutting edge sciences like AI, Behaviour Based Systems, etc
This document describes a student robotics project. The project involves building a robot that can sense obstacles using IR sensors, avoid obstacles autonomously, and resume its path. The robot is controlled by an AVR ATmega16 microcontroller. It uses an IR sensor to detect obstacles and an L293D motor driver and DC motors for movement. When an obstacle is detected, the microcontroller diverts the robot left or right to avoid the obstacle before resuming its forward motion. The project aims to create a mobile robot that can navigate independently within certain limitations.
This document describes the design of an automatic pick and place robot created by students. The robot uses a robotic arm with a gripper to pick objects from one box and place them in another box moving along linear guide ways. It analyzes how the robot can increase productivity over manual labor by working faster and without breaks. Diagrams and descriptions explain the mechanical and electrical components of the robot including the lead screw, ball bearings, gripper, manipulator, power supply, and PIC microcontroller used to control the robotic movements.
The line follower robot detects and follows a black line on a white surface using infrared sensors. It continuously corrects itself to stay on the track without human help. The sensors detect light reflected from the surface to determine if the line is centered, left, or right of the robot and signal the motors to move forward or turn accordingly. Potential applications include transport in factories, hospitals, museums, and more.
The document discusses robot kinematics and programming. It covers topics like robot joints and links, forward and inverse kinematics, position representation, homogeneous transformations, teach pendants, robot programming methods including leadthrough and textual languages, interpolation schemes, and generations of robot programming languages. Examples of concepts like translation, rotation, and programming commands are provided.
This project report summarizes the design and working of a line follower robot. It discusses the components used including an LM324 comparator IC, AT89C51 microprocessor, L293D H-bridge motor driver, and IR transmitter and receiver. It explains how the IR sensors detect the line and the microprocessor controls the motors to follow the line by turning when sensors detect line edges. The working principle section describes the robot's line detection and movement logic in detail. Applications mentioned include industrial transport, automated vehicles, and museum tour guides.
An introduction to Autonomous mobile robotsZahra Sadeghi
This document provides an introduction and overview of autonomous mobile robots and various techniques used in their development, including:
- Simulation studies allow researchers to test robot behaviors without building physical robots.
- The Khepera robot is a small, low-cost platform that has been used widely in research due its modularity and accessibility.
- Fuzzy logic, neuro-fuzzy systems, evolutionary robotics, and genetic programming are some methods explored for developing autonomous robot control systems without explicit programming. Co-evolution and complex environments can generate more advanced robot behaviors.
This robot follows a black line on a bright surface or white line on a dark surface using IR sensors to detect the line. It uses a microcontroller, IR sensors, motor driver, and DC motors to sense the line and drive the wheels to stay on the line. When the sensors detect the line on one side, the microcontroller stops that side's motor to turn the robot.
2. block diagram and components of embedded systemVikas Dongre
The document discusses the key hardware components of an embedded system, including:
- An embedded processor that has a control unit and execution unit to fetch and execute instructions.
- A power supply to power the system, which may be an external or internal source like a battery.
- A reset circuit that starts processor instruction execution from a default address on power up.
- A clock circuit that controls instruction execution time and machine cycles.
- An interrupt controller to handle interrupts from processes and multiple interrupts simultaneously.
- Timers to schedule tasks and provide a real-time clock function.
- Memory like ROM, RAM, and flash to store the program and data internally without a disk.
- I/
Obstacle Avoiding robot is a self thinking robot which can take decisions itself using programmed brain without any guidance from human beings. In our Project we use Infrared to sense obstacles and take movements accordingly. Our Project
mainly used in military application, small toys and also used in mines by increasing IR sensors.
Robotics is the Engineering science and technology of robots, and their design, manufacture, application, and Structural disposition.
Robotics is related to Electronics, Mechanics, and Software.
The term “Robotics” was coined by Isaac Asimov in his 1941 science fiction Short story “Liar”.
This document describes a line following robot project created by students at the Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology and Science Indore. The robot uses 3 IR sensor pairs and 2 motors to follow a black line on a white surface. It works by using the IR sensors to detect the line and send signals to the motor control circuitry, which instructs the motors to move the robot forward or turn as needed to stay on the line. The document discusses the components, working model, block diagram, applications and conclusions of the project. It proposes areas for future work, such as using a microcontroller and color sensors to add obstacle avoidance and other capabilities to the robot.
The document summarizes a project report for an autonomous robot named NA-YATR submitted to The Robotics Club. The report describes the components used including Arduino, motors, sensors, and software. It explains the working of the robot using A* pathfinding and ultrasonic sensors for obstacle avoidance. Experimental results showed the robot could efficiently detect obstacles and change paths to reach its destination. Future enhancements are discussed to improve functionality.
Design and Development of a Semi-Autonomous Telerobotic Warehouse Management ...IRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of a semi-autonomous telerobotic warehouse management robot for logistic applications. Key features of the robot include using an Arduino Mega microcontroller, navigating shelves independently, using LED indicators to display status, rerouting autonomously, and using audio commands to alert obstacles while maintaining compact dimensions of 300mm x 300mm x 500mm. Sensors like ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors, and a color sensor are used for obstacle detection, line following, and shelf recognition. The robot is programmed using Arduino to follow rules for different scenarios based on sensor input, like moving forward when following a line or triggering shelf scanning when a marking is detected.
This document is a project report for an automatic floor cleaner created by three students - Nadiminti Saroja Kumar, Digvijay Kumar, and Suravi Mahanta. It was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree in electrical and electronics engineering. The report describes the design and implementation of a floor cleaner robot that can operate in both automatic and manual modes to perform sweeping and mopping tasks. It uses an ATmega8 microcontroller to control hardware and software operations through wireless communication with a remote control.
This document describes a line tracking robot project created by two students. The robot uses infrared sensors to follow a black line on a white surface. It is powered by an Arduino UNO microcontroller and uses an L298N motor driver and DC motors. The future plans are to add a GSM module to monitor the robot's functions remotely. The conclusion states that line tracking robots have applications in industries for transporting goods automatically and accurately.
This is a full report of my project in Level 3 Term 1. The project was basically a self-driven vehicle capable of localizing itself in a grid and planning a path between two nodes. It can avoid particular nodes and plan path between two allowed nodes. Flood Fill Algorithm will be used for finding the path between two allowed nodes. The vehicle is also capable of transferring blocks from one node to another. In fact, this vehicle is a prototype of a self-driven vehicle capable of transporting passengers and it can also be used in industries to transfer different items from one place to another.
This document provides an outline and overview of a project to design an autonomous robot that can avoid obstacles using Arduino and ultrasonic sensors. The summary includes:
1) The project aims to design and build a fully autonomous robot that can avoid any obstacles in its path as it moves.
2) The robot uses Arduino, ultrasonic sensors, and a motor driver IC to detect obstacles and navigate around them autonomously without human intervention.
3) The document outlines the components, software, circuit diagram, and working process of the robot, and discusses its applications in dangerous environments or for tasks like automatic vacuum cleaning.
Andriod Controlled Pick and Place Arm with Line Follower Automatonijtsrd
Manufacturing automaton is widely used in small and medium plants, however, automaton cooperating with other devices is an important aspect for achieving the fully autonomous system. This paper presents the Pick and Place Robot with Line Follower Function for manufacturing application. Model of pick and place robot which will be functioned following a specific line may benefit production to reduce the labor cost or maybe alternatives of the labors. This system has a line follower and pick and place function that is controlled by Andriod with Arduino. Lwin Lwin Htay | Nyan Phyo Aung | Mo Mo Myint Wai "Andriod Controlled Pick and Place Arm with Line Follower Automaton" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26407.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/26407/andriod-controlled-pick-and-place-arm-with-line-follower-automaton/lwin-lwin-htay
Design and Fabrication of Obstacle Avoiding Robotic VehicleIRJET Journal
The document describes the design and fabrication of an obstacle avoiding robotic vehicle. Some key points:
- The robotic vehicle uses an Arduino microcontroller and ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles in its path. It is able to maneuver autonomously in unknown environments without collisions.
- When an obstacle is detected, the microcontroller redirects the robot by controlling the motors to move in an alternate direction and avoid the obstacle.
- The low-cost components like the Arduino, ultrasonic sensors, motor driver and DC motors make the robot easily replicable. The robot is able to fulfill goals like autonomous obstacle detection and avoidance in real-time without external control.
The focus of the Indian Railways is to increase capacity utilization of existing assets including rolling stock, track infrastructure, traction power and signalling & telecommunications. By running more high speed trains on the existing infrastructure, passengers and freight carrying capacity as well as revenue and profitability can be increased. In order to ensure safety over high speed and high density rail networks of Indian Railways it is the need of the hour to implement Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system such as Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). Indian Railways have taken up indigenous development of Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) through Research Designs & Standards Organization (RDSO) to prevent dangerous train collisions caused due to human errors or limitations and equipment failures by providing additional layer of enhanced safety in the operations.
The document presents a new type of line following robot that uses metal sensors to detect a metal line on the floor and maneuver based on that line. It focuses on developing the hardware model of the automated guided vehicle system and integrating it with metal detection sensors. The system uses three inductive proximity sensors located in front of the robot to detect a metal line attached to the floor and allow the robot to follow the line. Experimental results showed that the robot is able to accurately track and follow the metal line. This sensory system provides an alternative to traditional line following robots that typically use infrared sensors to detect colored lines and can have issues with varying light intensities.
Fabrication of Automatic Guided Vehicle Ajith Aravind
Automatic Guided vehicle (AGV) is a part of flexible manufacturing system. Now a days large manufacturing industries use the transportation systems foe various transportation purposes. various types of AGVs are available. Manufacturing and installation of this system is a tough task. The vehicle is designed according to the need and type of transportation, material to be transformed etc.
Design and Development of Device Used for Detection of Cracks on Railway TracksIRJET Journal
This document describes the design and development of a device to detect cracks in railway tracks. Sensors like IR sensors, ultrasonic sensors, PIR sensors, GPS and GSM modules are used. The IR sensor detects cracks in the tracks, ultrasonic sensor detects obstacles, and PIR sensor determines if obstacles are moving or stationary. When a crack is detected, the GPS module identifies the location which is sent via GSM module as an SMS to the nearest station master. The device is designed with a modular aluminum chassis and runs on batteries to autonomously inspect railway tracks for cracks and obstacles. Testing showed it can run for 3 hours and cover 32 km while achieving the target speed of 3 m/s. This automatic crack detection
Design and Construction of Line Following Robot using Arduinoijtsrd
Line following robot is an autonomous vehicle which detect black line to move over the white surface or bright surface. In this paper, the line following robot is constructed by using Arduino nano microcontroller as a main component and consists of three infrared IR sensors, four simple DC motors, four wheels and a PCB frame of robot chassis. The infrared sensors are used to sense the black line on white surface. When the infrared signal falls on the white surface, it gets reflected and it falls on the black surface, it is not reflected. In this system, four simple DC motors attached with four wheels are used to move the robot cars direction that is left, right and forward. The Arduino nano is used as a controller to control the speed of DC motors from the L2953D driver circuit. Khin Khin Saw | Lae Yin Mon ""Design and Construction of Line Following Robot using Arduino"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23977.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/23977/design-and-construction-of-line-following-robot-using-arduino/khin-khin-saw
The document presents a line following robot project that uses an Arduino UNO microcontroller board. The robot follows a black line on a white floor using an array of infrared transmitters and receivers. The Arduino UNO controls two motor drivers that power the robot's motors to move forward when on the line based on sensor feedback. Potential applications of this type of line following robot include industrial material transport, automated vehicles, floor cleaning, and path guidance. The project aims to create a simple robot that can autonomously navigate using a line on the ground as a guide.
This document describes the design of a line following robot. It consists of 3 sentences:
The line follower uses infrared sensors to detect a black line on a white surface and follow the path by adjusting its movement left, right or forward based on the sensor readings. It is programmed with an AVR microcontroller and uses an L298 motor driver to control the DC motors. Potential applications include automated cars using embedded magnets for guidance and industrial robots navigating factory floors.
This document summarizes a research paper on a shortest path follower robot. It describes the design of a line following robot that can detect the shortest path using IR sensors to follow a black line on a white surface. The robot uses an Arduino microcontroller connected to IR sensors and motors to determine the optimal path between a starting point and destination. It aims to solve the single source shortest path problem by identifying obstacles and navigating efficiently. The system architecture includes IR sensors to detect the line, motors to move the robot, and an Arduino board to process sensor readings and control the motors to follow the shortest route.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapte...University of Maribor
Slides from talk presenting:
Aleš Zamuda: Presentation of IEEE Slovenia CIS (Computational Intelligence Society) Chapter and Networking.
Presentation at IcETRAN 2024 session:
"Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS
Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation"
IEEE Slovenia GRSS
IEEE Serbia and Montenegro MTT-S
IEEE Slovenia CIS
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND COMPUTING ENGINEERING
3-6 June 2024, Niš, Serbia
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
bank management system in java and mysql report1.pdf
Line follower robot
1. Republic of Iraq
Ministry of higher Education and Scientific Research
University of Baghdad
College of Al-Khwarizmi Engineering
Automated Manufacturing Engineering Department
ate Project TitleduGrad
Black Line Tracking Robot
By
Zainab Falaih Hasan Ulla Ahmed Ouda
Under Supervision
Dr. Hussein Tbena Kadhim Msc. Raghad Ahmed
June/2016
2. University of Baghdad
College of Al-Khwarizmi Engineering
Automated Manufacturing Engineering Department
Graduate Project Titled
Black Line Tracking Robot
Submitted for partial fulfillment of the degree of
Bachelor of Automated Manufacturing Engineering
By
Zainab Falaih Hasan Ulla Ahmed Ouda
SupervisionUnder
Dr. Hussein Tbena Kadhim Msc. Raghad Ahmed
Committee Certificate
June/2016
4. Acknowledgments
We have received an amazing guidance from our supervisors "Dr. Hussien Tabeena" and "Msc. Raghad
Ahmed", we would like to convey our gratitude to them.
We would like to dedicate our project to all our "family members" for supporting us in all aspects of our lives
since we were born, without them we wouldn’t do anything.
We would like to thank all of our "lecturers" who were like candles in our way in every single information they
gave it to us from their knowledge.
At the end we would like to dedicate our project to all our "classmates" who shared with us everything and
supported us in the good and the bad times.
5. Abstract
This paper describes algorithm of line tracking robot (any contrasting colors) it’s a machine that can follow a
path. The path can be visible like a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa), the line follower robot is an
automated part of a fully automated factory which are considered to be the most flexible type of material handling
system, the vehicles’ working environment ranges from small offices with carpet floor to huge harbor dockside
areas, as it give many advantages in our lives.
The aim of this project is to build a prototype of a black line tracking robot that can move on a flat white surface
with visible black line to follow by its two driving wheels that connected to two DC gear motors and a third wheel
that make the vehicle to rotate 360°. The prototype is able to follow the black line on floor with the AVR
microcontroller to synchronize the orders from the sensors and for controlling the delay.
To follow the line, the microcontroller is attached to a sensor that continuously reflecting to the surface condition
by proximity sensor which control the movement and the direction of the vehicle which play role of stern and a
distance sensor which act like a brakes when necessary.
Therefore, this project involves designing and fabrication of the hardware and the software.
Keywords
Infrared detector, Mobile robots, Path planning, Line follower robot, Robot sensing system
6. I
Contents
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Chapter One: Introduction…………………...…………………………………………1
1.1 Line tracking robot definition………………...…………………………………….1
1.2 Literature review……………………………………..………………………….….1
1.3 Objective…………..………………………………………………………………..1
1.4 Scopes of project…………………..………………………………………………..2
1.5 Advantages……..…………………………………………………………………..2
1.6 Disadvantages………..……………………………………………………………..2
1.7 Applications…………..…………………………………………………………….3
Chapter Two: Robot Design……………………………………………………………4
2.1 Line tracking robot principle……..………………………………………………...4
2.2 Algorithm…..………………………………………………………………………5
2.3 Theory of differential steering system…………………..…………………………6
2.4 Path specification………… ………………………………………………………7
2.5 Methodology………..……………………………………………………………...7
Chapter Three: Hardware components………..………………………………………..8
3.1 Arduino Uno……..…………………………………………………………………8
3.2 The AVR microcontroller…..……………………………………………………...9
3.3 L298 dual H-bridge motor controller module………..…………………………...10
3.4 IR proximity sensor……………..………………………………………………...11
3.5 Carriage……..…………………………………………………………………….11
3.6 Batteries………………….……………………………………………………….12
3.7 Wires…..………………………………………………………………………….12
Chapter Four: Implementation………………………………………………………..13
7. II
4.1 Main board schematic……..……………………………………………………...13
4.2 Sensor circuit…..………………………………………………………………….15
4.3 Motor interface and control circuit…………..……………………………………16
4.4 The H-bridge control hardware..………………………………………………….17
4.5 PMW specification & calculation…………..…………………………………….18
4.6 Voltage experiment…………..…………………………………………………...19
4.7 Process explanation…………..…………………………………………………...20
4.8 Flow chart…………………..……………………………………………………..21
4.9 Programming………………..…………………………………………………….22
4.10 Code……………………………………………………………………………...22
4.11 Final shape……………………………………………………………………….25
Chapter Five: Results & Conclusion……………………………………...…………..27
5.1 Results…..………..……………………………………………………………….27
5.2 Proposal for future work………………..…………………………………………27
References & resources..………..…………………………………………………….28
8. III
List of figures
FIGURE NAME PAGE NUM.
2.1 Sensor principle 4
2.2 The robot principle 5
2.3 Theory of differential steering system 6
2.4 The path 7
3.1 Arduino UNO 8
3.2 AVR microcontrollers 9
3.3 L298 Dual H-bridge motor controller module 10
3.4 The proximity sensor 11
3.5 Automation carriage 11
3.6 Batteries 12
3.7 Wires 12
4.1 Schematic main board 13
4.2 Complete circuit diagram 14
4.3 Circuit connections 14
4.4 Schematic of a single sensor 15
4.5 Relative voltage swing 16
4.6 Internal schematic of L298 17
4.7 The motor controller 17
4.8 Line tracking process 20
4.9 Rotating algorithm 21
4.10 Process flow chart 21
4.11 Programmable code 22
4.12 Linking motors to tires 25
4.13 Final shape 26
4.14 Black line tracking robot on path 26
9. 1
Chapter one
Introduction
1.1 Linetracking definition
The line tracking is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line that is drawn on the floor. The path
consists of a black line on a white surface (or it may be reverse of that). The control system used must sense a
line and maneuver the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback
mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective closed loop System. The robot is designed to follow very tight
curves.[1]
1.2 Literaturereview
In this section some of the existing tools and technologies developed so far in the field line tracking robots are
reviewed. Hymavathi & Vijay Kumar (2011) presented a paper on Design of a double line tracking using IR
sensors, op-amp and 8051 Microcontroller. Arora & Mengi (2011) presented a paper on line follower using IR
sensors and S12X Microcontroller. These techniques have a major drawback that they are color dependent. The
voltages outputted by the sensors depend on the color sensed. Hence they are not flexible. Also these IR sensors
are affected by other IR radiations if present in the same environment. The placement of sensors is also dependent
on the dimensions of the path. Also IR sensors have a limited lifetime and it’s difficult to debug faults.[6]
1.3 Objective
In the industry carriers are required to carry products from one manufacturing plant to another which are usually
in different buildings or separate blocks. Conventionally, carts or trucks were used with human drivers.
Unreliability and inefficiency in this part of the assembly line formed the weakest link. The project objective is
to automate this sector, using carts to follow a line instead of laying railway tracks which are both costly and an
inconvenience.[1]
10. 2
1.4 Scopes of project
• The robot must be capable of following a line.
• It should be capable of taking various degrees of turns
• It must be prepared of a situation that it runs into a territory which has no line to follow.
• The robot must also be capable of following a line even if it has breaks.
• The robot must be insensitive to environmental factors such as lighting and noise.
• The color of the line must not be a factor as long as it is darker than the surroundings.
1.5 Advantages
Can be moved on the straight or arc-shaped railways to carry many different kinds of stuff.
Different shape, size and weight can be carry.
Flexible and intelligent.
Time consuming.
Used to reduce manufacturing and labor costs while increasing productivity and efficiency.
Robot movement is automatic.
It is used for long distance applications.
Simplicity of building.
Used in home, industrial automations etc.[8]
1.6 Disadvantages
Follows a black line about 1 or 2 inches in width on a white surface.
Simple robots with an additional sensors placed on them.
Needs a path to run either white or black since the IR rays should reflect from the particular path.
Slow speed and instability on different line thickness or hard angles.[8]
11. 3
Applications1.7
Industrial Applications: These robots can be used as automated equipment carriers in industries replacing
traditional conveyer belts, automatic storage, packaging, use as a handling materials vehicle inside the
factories, in harbors with the aid of robotic arm can make completely automated system of loading and
unloading from the ships.
Automobile applications: These robots can also be used as automatic cars running on roads with embedded
magnets.
Domestic applications: These can also be used at homes for domestic purposes like floor cleaning etc.
Guidance applications: These can be used in public places like shopping malls, museums etc. to provide
path guidance.
Medical applications: As a wheel chair for patients to use it, can be used in walking stick for blind persons
which react as an alarm when get out of the way instead of the motor, efficient automatic transportation of
goods, the goods typically transported by ATLIS System include carts of dietary/food items, medical/surgical
supplies (case carts), linens, trash, regulated medical waste, pharmaceuticals, items for decontamination
centers, and general housekeeping items.[1]
12. 4
Chapter two
Robot design
2.1 Line tracking robot principle
The working of a line follower robot is pretty straight forward. These robots have the capability to detect a
black/dark line on a lighter surface depending on the contrast. They estimate whether the line underneath them is
shifting towards their left/right as they move over them. Based on that estimation they give respective signals to
the motors to turn left/right so as to maintain a steady center with respect to the line.
These robots usually use an array of IR (Infrared) sensors in order to calculate the reflectance of the surface
beneath them. The basic criteria being that the black line will have a lesser reflectance value (black absorbs light)
than the lighter surface around it. This low value of reflectance is the parameter used to detect the position of the
line by the robot. The higher value of reflectance will be the surface around the line. So in this linear array of IR
sensors, if the leftmost/rightmost IR sensor presents the low value for reflectance, then the black line is towards
the left/right of the robot correspondingly. The controller then compensates for this by signaling the motor to go
in the opposite direction of the line. [2]
Fig. (2.1) Sensor Principle
13. 5
Fig. (2.2) The robot principle
2.2 Algorithm
The robot uses IR sensors to sense the line, IR LEDs (Tx) and sensors (Rx), facing the ground has been used in
this setup. The output of the sensors is an analog signal which depends on the amount of light reflected back, this
analog signal is given to the comparator to produce 0s and 1s which are then fed to the uC.
1. L= left sensor which reads 0; R= right sensor which reads 0.
If no sensor on Left (or Right) is 0 then L (or R) equals 0;
2. If both sensors read 1 go to step 3,
Else,
If L>R Move Left
If L<R Move Right
If L=R Move Forward
14. 6
Go to step 4
3. Move clockwise if line was last seen on Right
Move counter clockwise if line was last seen on Left
Repeat step 3 till line is found.
4. Go to step 1.[3]
2.3 Theory of the differential steering system
The differential steering system is familiar from ordinary life because it is the arrangement used in a wheelchair.
Two wheels mounted on a single axis are independently powered and controlled, thus providing both drive and
steering. Additional passive wheels (usually casters) are provided for support. Most of us have an intuitive grasp
of the basic behavior of a differential steering system. If both drive wheels turn in tandem, the robot moves in a
straight line. If one wheel turns faster than the other, the robot follows a curved path. If the wheels turn at equal
speed, but in opposite directions,
the robot pivots.[8]
Fig. (2.3) Theory of differential steering system
15. 7
2.4 Path specifications
There are two colors chosen for the guide-path.
Guiding Color: very low reflection color (black) drawn on the ground, which form the path of the vehicle;
the basic width of the line is (200mm) which is a bit more than the space between the two sensors, this is to avoid
failures happening while turnings. In this case the sensor board may go out of the basis path and read the data
from the basic carpet of the shop floor which makes the plan unlikely and unpredictable.
Base Color: This color is a shiny color with high reflection (white) which the line follower sensor react with
to move the vehicle, it forms the basic platform of the factory or the place where the vehicle work in.[3]
Fig. (2.4) The path
2.5 Methodology
First we used the reflective optical sensors but when we experienced it the signal that gave us was too weak so
we used an amplifier circuit but also the signal wasn’t strong enough to operate and sense the line from a distance
,Then we changed the sensors into the IR proximity sensor and tested it by connecting it with the Arduino and
when we passed it over a white color path it gave us signal (1) and when we passed it over black path gave us
(zero) , then we started the hardware part of the project and the programing part using the C/C++ language and
finally it worked. For which we’re thankful for, as we have learnt much more in the processes.[3]
16. 8
Chapter three
Hardware component
3.1 ArduinoUno
The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P.It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6
can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an
ICSP header and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it
to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. You can tinker
with your UNO without worrying too much about doing something wrong, worst case scenario you can replace
the chip for a few dollars and start over again. "Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release
of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were the reference
versions of Arduino, now evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino
boards, and the evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and
the reference model for the Arduino platform; for an extensive list of current, past or outdated boards see the
Arduino index of boards.[1]
Fig. (3.1) Arduino UNO
17. 9
3.2 The AVR microcontroller
Atmel's AVR® microcontrollers have a RISC core running single cycle instructions and a well-defined I/O
structure that limits the need for external components. Internal oscillators, timers, UART, SPI, pull-up resistors,
pulse width modulation, ADC, analog comparator and watch-dog timers are some of the features you will find in
AVR devices.
AVR instructions are tuned to decrease the size of the program whether the code is written in C or Assembly.
With on-chip in-system programmable Flash and EEPROM, the AVR is a perfect choice in order to optimize cost
and get product to the market quickly.[4]
Fig. (3.2) AVR microcontrollers
18. 10
3.3 L298 Dual H-bridgeMotor Controllermodule
H- Bridges are typically used in controlling motors speed and direction, but can be used for other projects such
as driving the brightness of certain lighting projects such as high powered LED arrays.
An H-Bridge is a circuit that can drive a current in either polarity and controlled by *Pulse Width Modulation (P
WM).Pulse Width Modulation is a mean in controlling the duration of an electronic pulse.[4]
Fig. (3.3) L298 Dual H-bridge Motor Controller module
3.4 IR Proximitysensor
The IR Proximity sensor is one of the most commonly used sensors you will find these in automatic taps,
automatic door opening, etc. This sensor works on the principle of IR reflectance.
There is an IR LED (white / light blue in color) that’s constantly emitting emitting IR light. The light when
reflected back falls on the IR Receiver) LED / Photodiode (the black / dark blue color led) this received signal
is then Already a member? Sign in processed by an Op-Amp and the Op-Amp gives a HIGH signal. So the sensor
module will give a HIGH signal if there is an object in front of the LED's. The range of sensing can be varied by
adjusting the potentiometer on the sensor module. The maximum range of this module is only a few cms, so don't
expect to use this as a distance sensor. The module will not work when pointed at black objects as black
color tends to absorb the IR light program to trigger the Buzzer every time the sensor gives a high signal.[2]
19. 11
Fig. (3.4) The proximity sensor
3.5 Carriage
Contain three tires used in the project taken from baby carriage, two of them are attached to the motors and the
third is restricted in movement only rotate forward and backward. Three tires are used instead of four to lessen
the friction while turning because there is no steering to rotate the tire.[3]
Fig. (3.5) Automation carriage
20. 12
3.6 Batteries
The vehicle is powered by two (9 volts) batteries as a primary source of an electrical energy for the motors and
as a power supply for the Arduino.
Fig.(3.6) 9v batteries
3.7 Wires
Fig. (3.7) Wires
21. 13
Chapter four
Implementation
4.1 Main board schematic
Each of the hardware is dissected and was designed/implemented separately for their functional and later
incorporated as one whole application. This helped in the debugging processes. In similar fashion the separate
modules forming the ensemble will be explained separately.
Fig. (4.1) Schematic main board
23. 15
4.2 Sensor circuit
The resistance of the sensor decreases when IR light falls on it. A good sensor will have near zero resistance in
presence of light and a very large resistance in absence of light, we have used this property of the sensor to form
a potential divider. The potential at point ‘2’ is R sensor / (R sensor + R1). Again, a good sensor circuit should
give maximum change in potential at point ‘2’ for no-light and bright-light conditions. This is especially important
if you plan to use an ADC in place of the comparator. To get a good voltage swing, the value of R1 must be
carefully chosen. If R sensor = a when no light falls on it and R sensor = b when light falls on it. The difference
in the two potentials is:
Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) }……….(1)
Fig. (4.4) Schematic of a single sensor
24. 16
Fig. (4.5) Relative voltage swing
Relative voltage swing = Actual Voltage Swing / Vcc……….(2)
= Vcc * { a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1) } / Vcc
= a/(a+R1) - b/(b+R1)
4.3 Motor interface and control circuit
The L298 Motor Driver has 4 inputs to control the motion of the motors and two enable inputs which are used for
switching the motors on and off. To control the speed of the motors a PWM Waveform with variable duty cycle
is applied to the enable pins. Rapidly switching the voltage between Vs and GND gives an effective voltage
between Vs and GND whose value depends on the duty cycle of PWM. 100% duty cycle corresponds to voltage
equal to Vs, 50 % corresponds to 0.5Vs and so on.
Many circuits use L293D for motor control, I chose L298 as it has current capacity of 2A per channel @ 45V
compared to 0.6 A @ 36 V of a L293D. L293D’s package is not suitable for attaching a good heat sink, practically
you can’t use it above 16V without frying it. L298 on the other hand works happily at 16V without a heat sink,
though it is always better to use one.
25. 17
Fig. (4.6) Internal Schematic of L298
4.4 The H-bridgecontrol hardware
Fig. (4.7) The motor control
26. 18
The entire motor control circuitry is shown in the above figure along with the internal circuitry of the L298 motor
control IC. The table below clearly indicated the operation of the IC.
Table (1)
The total number of directional control signals required is 4; but as it can be observed in the above table, IN1 &
IN2 are complimentary (and so is IN3 & IN4) that is, both the inputs have to take the opposite states for a safe
operation. This is done by connecting DL to IN1 and L D to IN2. The same is done to IN3 & IN4. Now we have
1 directional control per motor. The ENABLE of each motor section is given PWM inputs to further improve on
the control. Now, each motor has a direction control and a speed control. The clamping diodes are built into the
chip which prevent the back EMF generated by the motors to harm the H-bridge.
4.5 PWM Specification & Calculation
The L293D chip can operate on PWM signals up to 5kHz, which was decided to be used.
..........(3)
1/5kHz = [(PR2) + 1] × 4 × (1/4MHz) × 1
200μs = [(PR2) + 1] × 1μs
PR2 = 200-1 = 199 ≈200
Three speeds are used for the line following robot and their corresponding duty cycles are 0%, 50% & 96%.
These calculations are shown below.
27. 19
For 0% duty cycle the value to be loaded is obviously zero,
For 50 % duty cycle,
PWM duty cycle = 200μ s
100
× 50 = 100μs .
100 μ s = [DCx] •0.25μs • 1
DCx = 400 = 110010000b
Thus, clear the bits DCxB1 & DCxB0 and load 1100100b i.e. 100 into the CCPRxL
register.
For 96 % duty cycle,
PWM duty cycle = 200μ s
100
× 96 = 192μs .
192 μ s = [DCx] •0.25μs • 1
DCx = 768 = 1100000000b
Thus, clear the bits DCxB1 & DCxB0 and load 11000000b i.e. 192 into the CCPRxL register.
4.6 Voltage experiment
Orientation Voltage at node A Voltage at node B INFERENCE
Both sensors on white 3.5v 3.5v Robot not moving
Left sensoron white and right
sensoron black
0v 3.5v Robot drifted to right
Left sensor on black and right
sensor on white
3.5v 0v Robot drifted to left
Both sensors on black 0v 0v Robot moving
Forward
Table (2)
28. 20
4.7 Process explanation
Fig. (4.8) Line tracking process
As shown in the figure above, is a typical situation involved. At every sampled time the commands executed by
the microcontroller is also shown. From the above figure, it should be clear about the software requirements.
If no line is seen, the microcontroller just follows the previous action. This process is continued till either 5
seconds elapse or a line is reached. If a line is not reached within 5 seconds (software controlled), the
microcontroller shifts into “line find” mode. In this mode, the robot takes a right turn and starts rotating about a
fixed point. The radius is continuously incremented every second. Thus the robot follows the path of a spiral.
This process is continued till either a line is reached or till the robot has achieved a maximum radius of curvature
(is traveling in straight line) when the
Process is reset and the robot is made to turn in the starting circle, but now at a different point. This is the
algorithm with minimum complexity considering speed requirements.
32. 24
else if((sensor[0]==0)&&(sensor[1]==0)&&(sensor[2]==1)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
error=0;
else if((sensor[0]==0)&&(sensor[1]==1)&&(sensor[2]==1)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
error=-1;
else if((sensor[0]==0)&&(sensor[1]==1)&&(sensor[2]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
error=-2;
else if((sensor[0]==1)&&(sensor[1]==1)&&(sensor[2]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
error=-3;
else if((sensor[0]==1)&&(sensor[1]==0)&&(sensor[2]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
error=-4;
else if((sensor[0]==0)&&(sensor[1]==0)&&(sensor[2]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0)&&(sensor[4]==0))
if(error==-4) error=-5;
else error=5;
}
void calculate_pid()
{
P = error;
I = I + previous_I;
D = error-previous_error;
PID_value = (Kp*P) + (Ki*I) + (Kd*D);
previous_I=I;
previous_error=error;
}
void motor_control()
{
// Calculating the effective motor speed:
int left_motor_speed = initial_motor_speed-PID_value;
int right_motor_speed = initial_motor_speed+PID_value;
33. 25
// The motor speed should not exceedthe max PWM value
constrain(left_motor_speed,0,255);
constrain(right_motor_speed,0,255);
analogWrite(9,initial_motor_speed-PID_value); //Left Motor Speed
analogWrite(10,initial_motor_speed+PID_value); //Right Motor Speed
//following lines of code are to make the bot move forward
/*The pin numbers and high, low values might be different
depending on your connections */
digitalWrite(4,HIGH);
digitalWrite(5,LOW);
digitalWrite(6,LOW);
digitalWrite(7,HIGH);
}
4.11 Finalshape
We assembled all the parts tires to carriage, connected the motors to the tires and to the motor driver, the Arduino
kit was placed with glue on the cart and at last the electrical kit with the micro controller of the Arduino
Fig. (4.12) Linking motors to tires
35. 27
Chapter five
Results & Conclusion
5.1 Results
In general, LTR was tested employing all the navigational strategies discussed in this paper. Observation
made for every proposed strategy show that the robot is capable of navigating the line with no difficulties at
all. Introducing ambient lighting to the test pitch does not affect the line following capability. The same can
be said in terms of junction navigation algorithms.
When the both sensors read 3.5V the robot stopped.
When the right sensor read 3.5V and the left sensor read 0V the robot turned left.
When the right sensor read 0V and the left sensor read 3.5 V the robot turned right.
When the both sensors read 0V the robot moved forward.
Unexpected problems didn't take it in consideration:
It was supposed to use 5 sensors instead of two but because of the market limitations we had to work
with just two and that caused us troubles in movement accuracy.
We had batteries problem we couldn’t find rechargeable batteries so we had to use less efficiency
batteries which drains fast.
We switched the sensors from color sensor to proximity sensor because it didn’t give us enough voltage.
5.2 Proposal for future work
Many developing can achieve to the project like:
A camera to help in monitoring the way.
Adding fork- lift or robotic arm for automatic loading and unloading.
Add wiper for cleaning.
We can use more sensors to increase the accuracy or use the PID control to increase the flexibility and
control the errors.
36. 28
References & Resources
Books:
[1] Bajestani, S.E.M., Vosoughinia, A., “Technical Report of Building a Line Follower Robot” International
Conference on Electronics and Information Engineering
[2] M. Zafri Baharuddin, Izham Z. Abidin, S. Sulaiman Kaja Mohideen, Yap Keem Siah, Jeffrey Tan Too
Chuan,"Analysis of Line Sensor Configuration fo or the Advanced Line Follower Robot",University Tenaga
Nasional.
[3] Miller Peter , “Building a Two Wheeled Balancing Robot”, University of Southern Queensland, Faculty of
Engineering and Surveying. Retrieved Nov 18, 2008.
[4] Priyank Patil , “AVR Line Following Robot,” Department of Information Technology K. J. Somaiya College
of Engineering Mumbai, India. Retrieved Mar 5, 2010.
[5] Digital logic and computer design by M. Morris Mano - Prentice – Hall of India PVT limited
Digital Systems Principles & applications by Ronald J. Tocci Sixth Edition - Prentice – Hall of India PVT limited
Links:
[6] The Seattle Robotics Society Encoder library of robotics articles
http://www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/library.html
[7] Dallas Personal Robotics Group. Most of these tutorials and articles were referred.
http://www.dprg.org/articles/index.html
[8] Go Robotics.NET, this page has many useful links to robotics articles.
http://www.gorobotics.net/articles/index.php
[9] Carnegie Mellon Robotics Club. This is the links page with lots of useful resources
http://www.roboticsclub.org/links.html