This is a presentation of OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE ROBOT. which has the details on making an obstacle avoider using arduino uno, ultrasonic sensor. This presentation has the detailed description of all the components that are being used in making. And also circuit diagram and flow chart of the robot.
Obstacle Avoiding Robot
Robotics is a branch of science that deals with Mechanical, Electrical and Software fields. Robots are the machines that are used in our day-to-day to life to reduce men power and work accurately without any distortions. Robots can be classified into two different sections basing upon their skills as Automated and Manual. Obstacle detector is a Automated robot which itself recognizes the obstacle in its path and moves in free direction. Robot detects the obstacle by using two IR Sensors placed in front.
The IR sensors are placed on left and right side of the robot through which continuous Infrared radiation is emitted for detection of obstacles in the path. These IR Sensors are connected to a controlling element AT89c51 µc. When a obstacle is placed in the path of robot IR beam is reflected to the sensor from the obstacle. On detecting obstacle in the path sensor sends 0 volts to µc. This 0 voltage is detected by Microcontroller which avoids the obstacle by taking left or right turn. Similarly if the sensor sends +5v to Microcontroller, the Microcontroller assumes it as clear path and makes the robot to move in straight.
Two motors namely right motor and left motor are connected to Motor driver IC (L293D). L293D is interface with Microcontroller. Microcontroller sends logic 0 & logic 1 as per the programming to driver IC which makes motors to rotate in clockwise and anticlockwise direction. Wheels attached to the motors rotate accordingly with the motor shaft causing in the moment of the robot by wheels. In front portion of the robot a free wheel is attached to move the robot easily in any direction as per the requirement.
A 12Volts DC battery is attached to the circuit. As the microcontroller and sensors requires only 5v, set of resistors and capacitors are used to supply 5v DC to them. Power Management System is not maintained in the circuit as the battery can be removed after the usage of robot. So it does not cause any loss in the power of battery.
This type of robots has multiple applications in various fields. They can be used to know the strength of the opposite army in defense system. They can be used as floor and wall cleaners. They are used in automated GPS vehicles to calculate the moment of the vehicle overhead. These robots are easy to construct and cheaper in cost with long durability.
Fire Detector and Extinguisher Robot is operated to detect the fire and also to extinguish it. It can be operated in two modes one is manual mode and other is autonomous mode. Manual mode is operated using joysticks and for autonomous mode there is no human intervention. In manual mode direction of the robot is controlled using joysticks, even pump is operated manually. In autonomous mode IR sensors are used to detect the fire and robot is coded accordingly to move in the direction of detected fire. In this robot has a switch which is used to switch between manual and autonomous mode.
Project Report- RFID Based Automated Toll Collection System using Arduino @ A...Aman Gupta
For free download Subscribe to https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTfiZ8qwZ_8_vTjxeCB037w and Follow https://www.instagram.com/fitrit_2405/ then please contact +91-9045839849 over WhatsApp.
ATCS usually known as “Automated Toll Collection System” is a new technology for collecting toll in a faster and more efficient way. It is a great alternative to long waiting at manual toll plazas. In order to overcome the wastage of time and fuel at same time we have come up with a concept of RFID based automated toll collection system using Arduino. RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification; these cards are unique identities provided to every vehicle by Registration Office at each city. Whenever a vehicle with such Unique ID reaches the toll plaza, the RFID card reader attached on the toll plaza gate reads the card and transfers the unique ID to Arduino ATmega 328. Accordingly, the processor works and deducts a fixed money from the prepaid card. If the card’s ID is valid and has sufficient balance, the processor will command the DC motor to start and open the gate, letting the vehicle to pass. On passing from the gate the screen will show the deducted and current balance of the card. If the card is not valid or low in balance, it will prompt to move the vehicle to manual toll collection lane. Furthermore, a message will be sent to the owner’s registered mobile number with the same details along with the location of the toll booth.
My new upload !!! --> http://www.slideshare.net/choleraparth91/smart-vehicle-ensuring-safe-ride-using-accerolometer-laser-sensor-co-sensor-and-also-with-use-of-gsm-modem-and-solar-panel
Contact & follow me to get PDF & PPT file - https://www.linkedin.com/in/parthcholera/
Email me directly if you want these file !!
choleraparth91@yahoo.com
or
contact me on fb - https://www.facebook.com/choleraparth91
or
https://www.facebook.com/Textivity
or
message me on - 08097508067
I suggest to go for these project !!! :D :D
This is a presentation of OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE ROBOT. which has the details on making an obstacle avoider using arduino uno, ultrasonic sensor. This presentation has the detailed description of all the components that are being used in making. And also circuit diagram and flow chart of the robot.
Obstacle Avoiding Robot
Robotics is a branch of science that deals with Mechanical, Electrical and Software fields. Robots are the machines that are used in our day-to-day to life to reduce men power and work accurately without any distortions. Robots can be classified into two different sections basing upon their skills as Automated and Manual. Obstacle detector is a Automated robot which itself recognizes the obstacle in its path and moves in free direction. Robot detects the obstacle by using two IR Sensors placed in front.
The IR sensors are placed on left and right side of the robot through which continuous Infrared radiation is emitted for detection of obstacles in the path. These IR Sensors are connected to a controlling element AT89c51 µc. When a obstacle is placed in the path of robot IR beam is reflected to the sensor from the obstacle. On detecting obstacle in the path sensor sends 0 volts to µc. This 0 voltage is detected by Microcontroller which avoids the obstacle by taking left or right turn. Similarly if the sensor sends +5v to Microcontroller, the Microcontroller assumes it as clear path and makes the robot to move in straight.
Two motors namely right motor and left motor are connected to Motor driver IC (L293D). L293D is interface with Microcontroller. Microcontroller sends logic 0 & logic 1 as per the programming to driver IC which makes motors to rotate in clockwise and anticlockwise direction. Wheels attached to the motors rotate accordingly with the motor shaft causing in the moment of the robot by wheels. In front portion of the robot a free wheel is attached to move the robot easily in any direction as per the requirement.
A 12Volts DC battery is attached to the circuit. As the microcontroller and sensors requires only 5v, set of resistors and capacitors are used to supply 5v DC to them. Power Management System is not maintained in the circuit as the battery can be removed after the usage of robot. So it does not cause any loss in the power of battery.
This type of robots has multiple applications in various fields. They can be used to know the strength of the opposite army in defense system. They can be used as floor and wall cleaners. They are used in automated GPS vehicles to calculate the moment of the vehicle overhead. These robots are easy to construct and cheaper in cost with long durability.
Fire Detector and Extinguisher Robot is operated to detect the fire and also to extinguish it. It can be operated in two modes one is manual mode and other is autonomous mode. Manual mode is operated using joysticks and for autonomous mode there is no human intervention. In manual mode direction of the robot is controlled using joysticks, even pump is operated manually. In autonomous mode IR sensors are used to detect the fire and robot is coded accordingly to move in the direction of detected fire. In this robot has a switch which is used to switch between manual and autonomous mode.
Project Report- RFID Based Automated Toll Collection System using Arduino @ A...Aman Gupta
For free download Subscribe to https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTfiZ8qwZ_8_vTjxeCB037w and Follow https://www.instagram.com/fitrit_2405/ then please contact +91-9045839849 over WhatsApp.
ATCS usually known as “Automated Toll Collection System” is a new technology for collecting toll in a faster and more efficient way. It is a great alternative to long waiting at manual toll plazas. In order to overcome the wastage of time and fuel at same time we have come up with a concept of RFID based automated toll collection system using Arduino. RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification; these cards are unique identities provided to every vehicle by Registration Office at each city. Whenever a vehicle with such Unique ID reaches the toll plaza, the RFID card reader attached on the toll plaza gate reads the card and transfers the unique ID to Arduino ATmega 328. Accordingly, the processor works and deducts a fixed money from the prepaid card. If the card’s ID is valid and has sufficient balance, the processor will command the DC motor to start and open the gate, letting the vehicle to pass. On passing from the gate the screen will show the deducted and current balance of the card. If the card is not valid or low in balance, it will prompt to move the vehicle to manual toll collection lane. Furthermore, a message will be sent to the owner’s registered mobile number with the same details along with the location of the toll booth.
My new upload !!! --> http://www.slideshare.net/choleraparth91/smart-vehicle-ensuring-safe-ride-using-accerolometer-laser-sensor-co-sensor-and-also-with-use-of-gsm-modem-and-solar-panel
Contact & follow me to get PDF & PPT file - https://www.linkedin.com/in/parthcholera/
Email me directly if you want these file !!
choleraparth91@yahoo.com
or
contact me on fb - https://www.facebook.com/choleraparth91
or
https://www.facebook.com/Textivity
or
message me on - 08097508067
I suggest to go for these project !!! :D :D
Performance analysis of gesture controlled robotic careSAT Journals
Abstract
“ROBOT” is any automatically operated machine or a device that reduces human effort, though it may not look much like a
human being or function in a humanlike manner. Advanced, high-performance robots are used today in automobile
manufacturing and aircraft assembly, and electronics firms use robotic devices together with other computerized instruments to
sort or test finished products. Due to the demand of intelligent systems in every field of technology, automated systems are
preferred much for the betterment of the society.The main objective of designing this robo car is to make the world work with
more comfort and more easier way with the way they use today ,as in the recent era there were too many research in the field of
robotics and communication has happened ,so we tried to focus both robotics as by designing a small robocar and controlling
over RF frequency wirelessly for communication as the ease of access is our main priority we tried to focus also the comfort
ability and design a gesture based robotic car. This car not only detects the motion of a human hand but also reacts according to
the gesture, the main purpose of the bot is to make the world work with more ease or where the work of precision or accuracy is
needed it can also be used for the spying and for the field observation or in the industries where the work precision is made with
the use of human hand but it’s not comfortable due to hazardous object, we can have example of industries where furnace
temperature or a pressure is controlled through the accuracy of a knob controlled with human hand but working beside the boiler
or a furnace is always a risk task hence it is not possible so can be operated through gesture at a distance and operated can
operate knob by simply sitting in the cabin and through gesture of the handjust like virtually adjusting the knob or the control of
the robotic car.
Keywords: Gesture Based Robotic Car, Robotic Car, Robocar,
Autonomous Campus Tour Guide Robot by using Ultrasonic Range Sensors and QR c...ShwetonKedia
This undertaking depends on QR (Quick Response) codes to give area references to portable robots. The versatile robot is outfitted with a Smartphone that is modified to identify and peruse data on QR codes that are deliberately put in the working condition of the robot. The portable robot can play out the self-governing keep running all through the guide course by utilizing ongoing QR code acknowledgment. The lab data on QR code is played to the guests utilizing Text-to-Speech gave through Android gadget. Ultrasonic range sensors which can distinguish articles and measure separations with high precision are utilized to actualize the divider following and obstruction evasion practices. The gathered sonar data by ultrasonic range sensors is processed by a microcontroller that self-sufficiently controls the tour guide robot. A calculation dependent on the Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control is applied to the tour guide robot to perform increasingly precise robot movement control. A Bluetooth innovation is utilized to send flag to the Arduino from the Smartphone to operate the tour guide robot remotely.
Developing Infrared Controlled Automated Door SystemIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Smart phone based robotic control for surveillance applicationseSAT Journals
Abstract The robotics and automation industry which is ruled the sectors from manufacturing to household entertainments. It is widely used because of its simplicity and ability to modify to meet changes of needs. The project is designed to develop a robotic vehicle using android application for remote operation attached with wireless camera for monitoring purpose. The robot along with camera can wirelessly transmit real time video with night vision capabilities. This is kind of robot can be helpful for spying purpose in war fields. Keywords: Android, Robot, Bluetooth, Robotic control
Smart phone based robotic control for surveillance applicationseSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Maneuvering Robotic Vehicle based on Motion Sensor FeedbackIshanMalpotra
This is the project report of my Final year Project which bagged us
"Best Project Award" at NATIONAL LEVEL in "13th ISTE Tamilnadu & Puducherry Section Annual Convention for Engineering Students - 2014" held on 23rd - 24th January, 2014."
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
Pushing the limits of ePRTC: 100ns holdover for 100 daysAdtran
At WSTS 2024, Alon Stern explored the topic of parametric holdover and explained how recent research findings can be implemented in real-world PNT networks to achieve 100 nanoseconds of accuracy for up to 100 days.
Threats to mobile devices are more prevalent and increasing in scope and complexity. Users of mobile devices desire to take full advantage of the features
available on those devices, but many of the features provide convenience and capability but sacrifice security. This best practices guide outlines steps the users can take to better protect personal devices and information.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
zkStudyClub - Reef: Fast Succinct Non-Interactive Zero-Knowledge Regex ProofsAlex Pruden
This paper presents Reef, a system for generating publicly verifiable succinct non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs that a committed document matches or does not match a regular expression. We describe applications such as proving the strength of passwords, the provenance of email despite redactions, the validity of oblivious DNS queries, and the existence of mutations in DNA. Reef supports the Perl Compatible Regular Expression syntax, including wildcards, alternation, ranges, capture groups, Kleene star, negations, and lookarounds. Reef introduces a new type of automata, Skipping Alternating Finite Automata (SAFA), that skips irrelevant parts of a document when producing proofs without undermining soundness, and instantiates SAFA with a lookup argument. Our experimental evaluation confirms that Reef can generate proofs for documents with 32M characters; the proofs are small and cheap to verify (under a second).
Paper: https://eprint.iacr.org/2023/1886
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
Climate impact / sustainability of software testing discussed on the talk. ICT and testing must carry their part of global responsibility to help with the climat warming. We can minimize the carbon footprint but we can also have a carbon handprint, a positive impact on the climate. Quality characteristics can be added with sustainability, and then measured continuously. Test environments can be used less, and in smaller scale and on demand. Test techniques can be used in optimizing or minimizing number of tests. Test automation can be used to speed up testing.
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
GridMate - End to end testing is a critical piece to ensure quality and avoid...ThomasParaiso2
End to end testing is a critical piece to ensure quality and avoid regressions. In this session, we share our journey building an E2E testing pipeline for GridMate components (LWC and Aura) using Cypress, JSForce, FakerJS…
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
1. A
PROJECT REPORT ON
LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT
Submitted to
RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
BHOPAL (M.P.)
In Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEEING
IN
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted by
ROHIT DADORIYA (0905EC131137)
RISHABH GUPTA (0905EC131132)
PUSHPENDRARAGHUWANSHI (0905EC131125)
Under the guidance of
Mrs. Meha Agarwal
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY& MANAGEMENT, GWALIOR
(2013-2017)
2. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY& MANAGEMENT,GWALIOR
(M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
CERTIFICATE
This is certified that the Project entitled LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT
is the record of bonafide work done by ROHIT DADORIYA (0905EC
131137), RISHABH GUPTA (0905EC131132) and PUSHPENDRA
RAGHUWANSHI (0905EC131125) under my guidance for the partial
Fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of “Bachel
or of Engineering.” To the best of my knowledge, this project is an ori
ginal work and has not been submitted anywhere for the award of any
degree.
Date:
Mrs. Meha Agarwal
AssistantProfessor
3. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY& MANAGEMENT,GWALIOR
(M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
The foregoing project entitled LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT is hereby
approved as a creditable study of an engineering subject carried out and
presented in a manner satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a pre-req
uisite to the degree for which it is submitted. It is understood that by this
approval, the undersigned do not necessarily endorse any conclusion or
opinion therein, but approve the project for the purpose for which it was
submitted.
PROJECTGUIDE PROJECTMODULE
COORDINATOR
HOD PROJECT
COORDINATOR
4. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY& MANAGEMENT,GWALIOR
(M.P.)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to take this opportunity to express our extreme gratitude
towards our project guide Mrs. MEHA AGARWAL Department of El
ectronics and Communication for her invaluable guidance, advice and s
upport throughout the project. Her motivation and help have been a sour
ce of great inspiration to us.
We are also grateful to HOD Dr. D.V.B SINGH of our department prov
iding us adequate facilities because of which my project has been succes
sful.
We are very indebted to our Director Dr. B.K. SINGH who motivated
us to improve the quality of our project and extended all supports requir
ed at institution level.
Last but not the least we are also thankful to all faculty & staff members
of our department for corporation extended in completion of our project.
ROHIT DADORIYA (0905EC131137)
RISHABH GUPTA (0905EC131132)
PUSHPENDRARAGHUWANSHI (0905EC131125)
5. Abstract
This paper report describes the techniques for analyzing, designing, controlling and
improving the material supply delivery within hospitals. Due to increasing demands
for patient supervision, the jobs like supply of food, medicines etc., has become a ti
me consuming process. So, a microcontroller based line following robot carrying m
edicine can be designed for providing the medicine to the patient whenever they nee
d it. A line follower robot is an electronic system that can detect and follow a line dr
awn on the floor. The robot uses IR sensors to sense the line, an array of 3 IR LEDs
and sensors, facing the ground have been used in this setup. An IR sensor can be fitt
ed near the patient’s bed to which connection has been made with the robot too. The
switch for it can be activated by the supply person in the microcontroller itself. If th
e switch is pressed then a flag bit is set in the microcontroller, from which the robot
follows the line and reaches near the patient and provide the medicine to the patient.
A proximity sensor can be attached with the robot so that it detects any obstacle pre
sent in their way and can alarm. The ability to get someone around the clock is the b
est thing that this system can do. This helps and simplifies the job of material supply
and also reduces the manual routine work done by the hospital staff. This technolog
y focuses on the delivery of safe, timely, efficient, effective, patient-centered health
care.
6. Table of contents
S. No
.
Chapter Page No.
Certificates
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures
1 Introduction 1-3
1.1 Objective of study
1.2 Problem Defination
1.3 Project scope
1.4 Block diagram
1
2
2
3
2 Literature Survey 4-7
2.1 Autonomous robot
2.2 Working principle
2.3 Hardware components
4
5
7
3 Steps in Circuit Designing 6-15
3.1 Circuit diagram and explanation
3.1.1 Block diagram
3.1.2 Software tools
3.1.3 Schematic diagram
3.1.4 PCB Designing
3.1.5 Pressing
3.1.6 Etching
3.1.7 Drilling & Shouldering
8
8
9
13
13
14
14
14
8. List of Figures
Figures Page No.
1.1 Block diagram of line follower robot
3.1 Block diagram
3.2 Schematic diagram
3.3 PCB Layout
3.4 PCB after drilling and shouldering
3.5 PCB after fixing components
4.1 World health statistics, WHO 2013
7.1 IR sensor
7.2 Pin diagram of ATmega8
7.3 Voltage regulator
7.4 Pin diagram of LM358 IC
7.5 Motor driver IC
7.6 H Bridge switch operation
7.7 Pin configuration of L293D
7.8 Potentiometer
3
8
13
14
15
15
17
22
23
24
25
26
26
27
27
9. Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
A line follower robot is basically a robot designed to follow a line or path already pre
determined by the user. This line or path may be as simple as a physical white line on
the floor or as complex path marking schemes e.g. embedded lines, magnetic markers
and laser guide markers. In order to detect these specific markers or ‘lines’, various se
nsing schemes can be employed. These schemes may vary from simple low cost line s
ensing circuit to expansive vision systems. The choice of these schemes would be dep
endent upon the sensing accuracy and flexibility required. From the industrial point of
view, line following robot has been implemented in semi to fully autonomous plants.
In this environment, these robots functions as materials carrier to deliver products fro
m one manufacturing point to another where rail, conveyor and gantry solutions are n
ot possible. Apart from line following capabilities, these robots should also have the c
apability to navigate junctions and decide on which junction to turn and which junctio
n ignore. This would require the robot to have 90 degree turn and also junction counti
ng capabilities. To add on to the complexity of the problem, sensor positioning also pl
ays a role in optimizing the robots performance for the tasks mentioned earlier.
Line-following robots with pick- and- placement capabilities are commonly used in m
anufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from spec
ified locations and place them on desired locations. Basically, a line-following robot i
s a self-operating robot that detects and follows a line drawn on the floor. The path to
be taken is indicated by a white line on a black surface. The control system used must
sense the line and man oeuvre the robot to stay on course while constantly correcting t
he wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a simple yet effective close
d- loop system.
1.1 Objective of Study
The robot must be capable of following a line.
It should be capable of taking various degrees of turns
It must be prepared of a situation that it runs into a territory which has no line
to follow.
The robot must also be capable of following a line even if it has breaks.
10. The robot must be insensitive to environmental factors such as lighting and
noise.
It must allow calibration of the line’s darkness threshold.
The robot must be reliable
Scalability must be a primary concern in the design.
The color of the line must not be a factor as long as it is darker than the
Surroundings
1.2 Problem Defination
In the industry carriers are required to carry products from one manufacturing plant to
another which are usually in different buildings or separate blocks. Conventionally, c
arts or trucks were used with human drivers. Unreliability and inefficiency in this part
of the assembly line formed the weakest link. The project is to automate this sector, u
sing carts to follow a line instead of laying railway tracks which are both costly and a
n inconvenience
1.3 ProjectScope
The robot can be further enhanced to let the user decide whether it is a dark line on a
white background or a white line on a dark background. The robot can also be progra
mmed to decide what kind of line it is, instead of a user interface. The motor control c
ould be modified to steer a convectional vehicle, and not require a differential steering
system. The robot could be modified to be a four wheel drive. Extra sensors could be
attached to allow the robot to detect obstacles, and if possible bypass it and get back t
o the line. In other words, it must be capable predicting the line beyond the obstacle. S
peed control could also be incorporated. Position and distance sensing devices could a
lso be built in which can transmit information to a mother station, which would be use
ful in tracking a lost carrier.
12. Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
In recent years a great deal of time and effort has been spent of developing systems to
enable an autonomous robot to follow a marked path using a vision system. Not surpri
singly, the majority of this research has been towards modifying, or designing from sc
ratch, a full-sized road vehicle so that it can drive on ordinary roads without human su
pervision. Due to the large amount of space available in an ordinary road vehicle, high
performance computers can be used to perform complex image processing and, typic
ally, to maintain a mathematical model of the vehicle and the environment.
Research into autonomous driving using smaller robots typically follows one of two a
pproaches. In the first approach a mathematical model of the vehicle and its surroundi
ngs is generated, tested in simulation, and then applied to a robot built specifically for
the purpose. In the second approach a combination of a visual servoing system and a k
inematic model is used, again the robot is typically designed around the solution techn
ique. Due to the size of these robots, the processing resources available are quite limit
ed so simpler models and techniques, such as visual servoing, are used to reduce the p
rocessing load.
2.1 Autonomous Robots
Autonomous robots are independent of any controller and can act on their own. The r
obot is programmed to respond in a particular way to an outside stimulus. The bump-a
nd-go robot is a good example. This robot uses bumper sensors to detect obstacle. Wh
en the robot is turned on, it moves in a straight direction and when it hits an obstacle, t
he crash triggers its bumper sensor. The robot gives a programming instruction that as
ks the robot to back up, turn to the right direction and move forward. This is its respon
se to every bump. In this way, the robot can change direction every time, it encounters
an obstacle.
A more elaborate version of the same idea is used by more advanced robots. Robotics
create new sensor systems and algorithms to make robots more perceptive and smarter
. Today, robots are able to effectively navigate a variety of environments. Obstacle av
oidance can be implemented as a reactive control law whereas path planning involves
13. the pre-computation of an obstacle-free path which a controller will then guide a robot
along.
Some mobile robots also use various ultrasound sensors to see obstacles or infrared. T
hese sensors work in a similar fashion to animal echolocation. The robot sends out a b
eam of infrared light or a sound signal. It then detects the reflection of the signal. The
robot locates this distance to the obstacles depending on how long it takes the signal t
o bounce back.
Some advanced robots also use stereo vision. Two cameras provide robots with depth
perception. Image recognition software then gives them the ability to locate, classify v
arious objects. Robots also use smell and sound sensors to gain knowledge about its s
urroundings
2.2 Working Principle
Robotics is an interesting subject to discuss about and in this advanced world Robots
are becoming a part of our life. In this project we are going to discuss about a robot w
hich is capable of following a line without the help of any external source.
The Embedded Line following robot uses two motors to control rear wheels and the si
ngle front wheel is free. It has 3-infrared sensors on the bottom for detection of black t
racking tape. When the middle sensor detects the black color, this sensor output is giv
en to the comparator LM358. The output of comparator compares this sensor output w
ith a reference voltage and gives an output. The output of comparator will be low whe
n it receives an input from the sensor.
We follow a simple logic to implement this project. As we know that black colour is c
apable of absorbing the radiation and white colour or a bright colour reflects the radiat
ion back. Here we use 3 pairs of IR TX and Rx .The robot uses these IR sensors to sen
se the line and the arrangement is made such that sensors face the ground. The output
from the sensors is an analog signal which depends on the amount of light reflected ba
ck and this analog signal is given to the comparator to produce 0s and 1s.
Internally we have an OTP (one time programmable) processor which is used to contr
ol the rotation of the wheels. The rotation of these wheels depends up on the response
14. from the comparator. Let us assume that when a sensor is on the black line it reads 0 a
nd when it is on the bright surface it reads 1.
Here we can get three different cases, they are:
1. Straight direction
2. Right curve
3. Left curve
2.2.1 Straight direction
We can expect our robot to move in straight direction when the middle sensors respon
se is low and the remaining two sensors response is high. i.e., according to our arrang
ement the middle sensor will always be on the line and as the line is black in colour it
will not reflect the emitted radiation back and the response of the sensor will be low a
nd the response of the remaining two sensors will be high as they will be on the bright
surface.
2.2.2 Right curve:
When a right curve is found on the line the responses will change i.e. the response of t
he first sensor which is to the right will become low as that sensor will be facing the b
lack line and the reaming sensors response will be high. We this data is achieved the c
ontrol of the wheels is changed i.e. the right wheel is held and the left wheel is made t
o move freely until the response from the middle sensor becomes low. Then the same
process repeats again.
2.2.3 Left curve
When a left curve is found on the line the response of the left most sensor will be chan
ged from high to low as the sensor will now face the black or the dark surface. Then t
he control of the wheel changes i.e. by holding the left wheel and allowing the right
wheel to move freely until the middle sensor changes it is response from high to low.
The same process continues for all the turns and the robot moves continuously until th
e supply is remove.
15. 2.3 Hardware Components
1. IR SENSOR
2. MICROCONTROLLER
3. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
4. COMPARATOR IC
5. MOTOR DRIVER IC
6. POTENTIOMETER
16. Chapter 3
STEPS IN CIRCUIT DESIGNING
3.1 Circuit Diagramand Explanation
In this Line Follower Robot circuit we have used an IR sensor for detecting the line an
d a Comparator IC for comparing voltages. Comparator configured in non-inverting m
ode and 10 K potentiometer is connected at its inverting terminal for adjusting referen
ce voltage and IR receiver’s output is directly connected at non-inverting pins of all c
omparators. One Red LED is connected at output of in the sensor board when this led
blinks then it means our sensor is working, then signal goes to microcontroller IC whi
ch is programmed and gives the output to the motor driver IC which rotates the motor
s as per the programming of microcontroller IC.
3.1.1 Block Diagram
The first step is the block diagram which gives an overview of the interconnection am
ong various components. The components are microcontroller (Atmega8), comparator
IC (L324), IR Sensors and Motor Driver IC (L293D).
Fig.3.1 Block Diagram
3.1.2 Software Tools
After the block diagram, coding needs to be done. The software used for coding is avr
studio4 and the language used for coding is “embedded c”.
17. The program code acts as the decision-maker embedded in the microcontroller i.e. it d
ecides what will be the outputs for particular set of input combination. Programs for t
he AVR series of microcontrollers can be written in assembly C and AVR Studio etc.
We are using winAVR for programming and AVR Studio for simulating (Simulation
means debugging the code on software, one can virtually give the input and check the
output for that code). In winAVR programmers Notepad we write our C code, after co
mpilation it generates ‘.hex’ file that is a hardware level code.
Source Code
#include <mega8.h>
#include <delay.h>
// Declare your global variables here
int i,j,K;
void main(void)
{
// Declare your local variables here
// Input/Output Ports initialization
// Port B initialization
// Func7=Out Func6=Out Func5=Out Func4=Out Func3=Out Func2=Out Func1=Out
Func0=Out
// State7=0 State6=0 State5=0 State4=0 State3=0 State2=0 State1=0 State0=0
PORTB=0x00;
DDRB=0xFF;
// Port C initialization
// Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In
// State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T
PORTC=0x00;
DDRC=0x00;
// Port D initialization
// Func7=In Func6=In Func5=In Func4=In Func3=In Func2=In Func1=In Func0=In
// State7=T State6=T State5=T State4=T State3=T State2=T State1=T State0=T
PORTD=0x00;
DDRD=0x00;
// Timer/Counter 0 initialization
// Clock source: System Clock
18. // Clock value: Timer 0 Stopped
TCCR0=0x00;
TCNT0=0x00;
// Timer/Counter 1 initialization
// Clock source: System Clock
// Clock value: Timer1 Stopped
// Mode: Normal top=0xFFFF
// OC1A output: Discon.
// OC1B output: Discon.
// Noise Canceler: Off
// Input Capture on Falling Edge
// Timer1 Overflow Interrupt: Off
// Input Capture Interrupt: Off
// Compare A Match Interrupt: Off
// Compare B Match Interrupt: Off
TCCR1A=0x00;
TCCR1B=0x00;
TCNT1H=0x00;
TCNT1L=0x00;
ICR1H=0x00;
ICR1L=0x00;
OCR1AH=0x00;
OCR1AL=0x00;
OCR1BH=0x00;
OCR1BL=0x00;
// Timer/Counter 2 initialization
// Clock source: System Clock
// Clock value: Timer2 Stopped
// Mode: Normal top=0xFF
// OC2 output: Disconnected
ASSR=0x00;
TCCR2=0x00;
TCNT2=0x00;
OCR2=0x00;
19. // External Interrupt(s) initialization
// INT0: Off
// INT1: Off
MCUCR=0x00;
// Timer(s)/Counter(s) Interrupt(s) initialization
TIMSK=0x00;
// USART initialization
// USART disabled
UCSRB=0x00;
// Analog Comparator initialization
// Analog Comparator: Off
// Analog Comparator Input Capture by Timer/Counter 1: Off
ACSR=0x80;
SFIOR=0x00;
// ADC initialization
// ADC disabled
ADCSRA=0x00;
// SPI initialization
// SPI disabled
SPCR=0x00;
// TWI initialization
// TWI disabled
TWCR=0x00;
while (1)
{
i=PINC.4;
j=PINC.3;
K=PINC.2;
if(i==1&&j==0&&K==1)
{
PORTB=0x06;
delay_ms(200);
}
else if(i==0&&j==1&&K==0)
21. // Place your code here
}
}
3.1.3 Schematic Diagram
After coding schematic diagram is drawn on protious 8 professional and the schematic
diagram is shown below. Using protious we will simulate the project and check if it
works properly. So that we can perform the hardware implementation of the project.
Fig.3.2 Schematic Diagram of Line Follower Robot
3.1.4 PCB Designing
Fourth step is designing the PCB layout using PCB Express software. In the PCB expr
ess software, choose the different IC’s and other components from the component ma
nager and draw a clean PCB layout. The PCB layout of line follower robot is given as
:
22. Fig.3.3 PCB Layout of Line Follower Robot
3.1.5 Pressing
After the PCB layout is done, take its printout on a glossy A4 size sheet using a LASE
R printer and print it on the copper clad board (CCD) Using press method. Due to whi
ch the diagram on the glossy paper will stick to the board.
3.1.6 Etching
After pressing the glossy paper on the PCB board, now dip that printed circuit board i
n FeCl3 for one hour and this whole process is known as Etching.
3.1.7 Drilling and Shouldering
After taking out the PCB from the ferric chloride solution, now PCB is ready for Drill
ing. Drilling is the process in which small holes are made in the PCB for fixing the co
mponents. The size of hole is about 0.8mm and the machine is used for drilling is call
ed Drilling machine.
After the drilling process now fix all the components in the holes andthen to fix the co
mponents permanently we shouldering process, in which a wire, made of tin and lead
is heated by a shouldering machine so that it melts and components become stick to th
e board permanently.
23. Fig.3.4 PCB after Drilling and Shouldering
Fig.3.5 PCB after fixing the Components
24. Chapter 4
RESULT & DISCUSSION
Our project is an innovative idea of intelligent system which has basically line detecti
on feature and will provide help in various fields like hospitals and service sectors. Th
e sensors in this system are a type of infrared sensor that senses the line and gives the
feedback to the microcontroller unit.
1. The battery activates the circuit.
2. The sensor transmitter transmits the frequency, which reflects from the surface.
Sensor receiver receives the reflected frequency and gives it to the
microcontroller.
3. The 8051 microcontroller processes it and gives the signal to motor driver IC.
4. Motor driver IC rotates the motors as per the signal receive and then the
wheels rotates.
4.1 Result
The objective of the line following robot is to follow a line on its given path which is
obtained for which it uses IR sensors which detects the line and sends the information
to LM324 comparator and then to H bridge which controls the working of the wheel’s
. Microcontroller controls the other operations.
4.2 Discussions
Research shows that number of patients died because of few numbers of trained medi
cal staff. Shortage of nurses is ‘killing thousands a year’: Patients in overstretched hos
pitals developing fatal complications which could have been cured. A lot of hospitals
have stopped recruiting nurses and medical personnel since 2005 and 2006. From the
past two years there is an increasing trend of recruiting more doctors than the nurses. I
f sufficient number of nurses based on the patient numbers visiting a hospital can be r
ecruited then the number of deaths can be estimated decreases by 10 %.
25. Figure 4.1 World health statistics, WHO 2013
The above table (fig4.1) shows that the availability of nurses and physicians is very lo
w in India compared to that of the Global median. So there is a high need of supervisi
on of the nurses or attendants towards the monitoring of patients rather than concentra
ting on the supply of medicines, food etc. This leads to the need for implementing oth
er alternative for those activities. This is the situation where the Automated Guided V
ehicle (AGV) can be implemented for the delivery of the material supply to patients. I
n this paper we considered the use of a line follower robot for the above specified pro
blem.
Recommended Solution
Automation is recommended in the material supply delivery system. The benefits of u
sing the automation techniques in hospitals are as follows:
The average nurse walks roughly 5 miles per shift of work. Much of this travel time is
not spent travelling from one patient to the next to apply hands-on, bedside care. Unf
ortunately, most of the walking is spent in the pursuit of hunting for and gathering me
dical supplies, collecting and executing physician orders, and performing registration
and discharge tasks. These routine and mundane tasks can be performed by robots no
w. Thanks to the robot solution, quality of care improves through efficiency.
Nurses can now claim more time during their shift to spend on patient care. In fact, th
e robot allows for a redefinition of ‘patient care.’ Whereas historically, gathering supp
lies, coordinating meals and medications, and various forms of paperwork and docum
entation were considered ‘patient care’, now these administrative and logistical tasks c
an be defined and assigned to what they truly are. And nurses can get back to the high
ly-skilled interpersonal clinical tasks that they have been trained for, and that patients
26. really need in order to heal. Quality of care improves through increased staff satisfacti
on.
Medical errors have been a major cost to the healthcare delivery system. First and fore
most, there is a human cost. Medical errors have caused death, dismemberment, and
minor injuries.
4.3 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
Robot movement is automatic.
Fit and Forget system.
Cost effective.
Simplicity of building
Disadvantages
LFR follows a black line about 1 or 2 inches in width on a white surface.
LFR are simple robots with an additional sensors placed on them.
Needs a path to run either white or black since the IR rays should reflect from
the particular path.
Slow speed and instability on different line thickness or hard angles.
4.4 Applications
Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.
Industrial applications.
Home applications.
27. Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
5.1 Conclusion
In this project we have studied and implemented a Line Following Robot using a Micr
ocontroller for blind people. The programming and interfacing of microcontroller has
been mastered during the implementation.
The cost of health care in India greatly depends upon the land and location of building
, the infrastructure and facilities and skilled staff required to maintain the expensive m
achinery. In a country like India, where the population in humongous and the resource
s are scarce, it becomes highly difficult to set up such extensive projects in every locat
ion. So what this system provides is an alternate to the existing system with robotic m
achinery, which can handle tasks with lower per capita cost and better accuracy
5.2 Future Scope
Smarter versions of line followers are used to deliver mails within office building and
deliver medications in a hospital.
This technology has been suggested for running buses and other mass transit systems
and may end up as a part of autonomous cars navigating the freeway.
Line following robot based materials supply system can play a vital role in the field of
hospitality. Line following robot’s application over electronics engineering can’t be u
nderestimated. In India many people show reluctance to get admitted in a hospital bec
ause of cost issues. The cost for cure can be reduced by using the robots in governmen
t and private hospitals. It can be very beneficial for the patients as well. Also, monitori
ng of every patient is very difficult for the nurses, given the fact that there are very fe
w of them. So a camera can be placed in the line following robot, from which the stat
us for every patients can be handle from a single room. In the bed of the patient an acc
elerometer can be placed from which if a patient have a heart attack then that device c
an operate an alarm circuit. A GSM module can be placed with the line following rob
ot so that if any untoward incident occurs then that system can make a call to the doct
or, it also helps the doctors for remote diagnosis of patients even when he is away fro
28. m hospital by remote presence. The line follower robots can also be improvised by usi
ng RFID tags so that accuracy of the system increases. Robotics is very big field for t
he new innovation and research. By using the robot in real time applications, a health
care system can be manage in an effectively way.
29. Chapter 6
BIBLOGRAPHY
6.1 References
[1].Bajestani, S.E.M., Vosoughinia, A., “Technical Report of Building a Line
Follower Robot” International Conference on Electronics and Information
Engineering (ICEIE 2010), vol 1, pp v1-1 v1-5, 2010.
[2].Bong. D.M.K, “Automatic Guided Vehicle System” in Department of
Electrical Engineering, University Tenega Nasional, Malaysia, P.41, 2004.
[3]. Colak, I., Yildirim, D.,”Evolving a Line Following Robot to use in shopping
centers for entertainment”,Industrial Electronics, 2009. IECON ’09. 35th
Annual Conference of IEEE,pp.3803 – 3807,3-5 Nov. 2009.
[4]. Development and Applications of Line Following Robot Based Health Care
Management System Deepak Punetha, Neeraj Kumar, Vartika Mehta,
International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Engineering &
Technology (IJARCET), Volume 2, Issue 8, August 2013 p2446-2450
[5].Health Care System – Liverpool-ha.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
[6]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_system.
[7]. K.A.Unyelioglu, C.Hatipoglu, and U.Ozguner, “Design and analysis of a
line following robot controller”, IEEE Trans. Control System Technol., Vol.5,
no.1, pp.127-134, 1997 (Pubitemid 127770536)
[8]. M.Mehdi Samaatiyan, Mehran Pakdaman “Design and implementation of
line follower robot”, Mazandaran Institute of Technology, Iran, 2009,
Second International Conference on Computers and Electrical Engineering.
[9]. Priyank Patil, “AVR Line Following Robot,” Department of Information
Technology K. J. Somaiya College of Engineering Mumbai, India.
30. Chapter 7
APPENDIX
7.1 IR Sensors
An Infra-Red sensor detects Infra-Red light/white light from a particular object/lin
e and then converts light energy to electrical energy. An IR sensor pair consists of
an emitter and a detector. The emitter is blue in color and the detector can be grey,
black or white in color.
2.2.1.1 IR Emitter:
An infra-red emitter is a Light Emitting Diode (LED) made from Gallium Arsenide
. It detects IR energy at a wavelength of 880nm and emits the same. The infrared p
hototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage determined by the amount o
f light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a variable current source. Greater amo
unt of IR light cause greater currents to flow through the collector-emitter leads.
The variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage drop in the pull-
up resistor. This voltage is measured as the output of the device.
2.2.1.2 IR Detector:
An infra-red detector is a photo detector. It detects IR energy emitted by the emitte
r and converts it into electrical energy. The main principle involved in the conversi
on of light energy to electrical energy is photoelectric effect.The output is taken at
negative terminal of IR detector. The output can be taken to a microcontroller eithe
r to its ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) or LM 339 can be used as a comparator
Fig: 7.1 IR Sensor
31. 7.2 ATmega 8 Microcontroller
The ATmega 8 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller wit
h 4K bytes of programmable Flash memory and erasable read only memory (PER
OM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry- standard MCS-51 instruction set a
nd pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-
system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a ver
satile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega 8 is a powerf
ul microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to
many embedded control applications.
7.2.1 Pin Configurations
Fig. 7.2 Pin Configuration
7.2.2 Standard Features
4K bytes of Flash,
128* 8 bits of internal RAM,
32 programmable I/O lines,
Full static operation: 0Hz to 24 MHz
Three level program memory Lock
two 16-bit timer/counters,
a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture,
7.3 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a c
32. onstant voltage level. It converts a positive voltage (7-29V) to +5 volts. Heat sink p
rovided in the center to release heat generated due to drop across the IC. Input volt
age of about 5 to 18 V is given, Ground is 0 V and regulated output of +5V. It may
use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltag
es. There are two types of regulator:
Positive Voltage Series (78xx)
Negative Voltage Series (79xx)
78xx: ’78’ indicate the positive series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppos
e 7805 produces the maximum 5V. ’05’ indicates the regulator output is 5V.
79xx: ’78’ indicate the negative series and ‘xx’ indicates the voltage rating. Suppos
e 7905 produces the maximum -5V. ’05’ indicates the regulator output is -5V.
.
Fig: 7.3 Voltage Regulator
7.4 ComparatorIC
The LM358 IC is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel op-amp IC. It is
designed and introduced by national semiconductor. It consists of two internally fr
equency compensated, high gain, independent op-amps. This IC is designed for spe
cially to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. The L
M358 IC is available in a chip sized package and applications of this op amp inclu
de conventional op-amp circuits, DC gain blocks and transducer amplifiers. LM35
8 IC is a good, standard operational amplifier and it is suitable for your needs. It ca
n handle 3-32V DC supply & source up to 20mA per channel. This op-amp is apt, i
f you want to operate two separate op-amps for a single power supply. It’s availabl
e in an 8-pin DIP package.
33. Fig.7.4 pin diagram of LM 358 IC
7.5 MotorDriver IC
This is a Motor driver IC that can drive two motors simultaneously. Motors are arr
anged in a fashion called H-Bridge. An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which ena
bles DC electric motors to be run forwards or backwards. These circuits are often u
sed in robotics. H-bridges are available as integrated circuits, or can be built from d
iscrete components.
The two basic states of a H-bridge. The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical
graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-bridge is built with four switches (
solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first fig
ure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across t
he motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this volt
age is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.
Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at th
e same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The sa
me applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.
The switching property of this H-Bridge can be replaced by a Transistor or a Relay
or a MOSFET or even by an IC. Here we are replacing this with an IC named L29
3D as the driver whose description is as given below. The Device is a monolithic i
ntegrated high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept standar
d DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads as and switching power transi
stors. To simplify use as two bridges each pair of channels is equipped with an ena
ble input. A separate supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a
lower voltage and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for us
34. e in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293D is assembled in
a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for h
eat sinking The L293D is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which has 8 center
pins connected together and used for heat sinking.
Fig. 7.5 Motor Driver IC
7.5.1 Operation
The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, b
ut can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, a
s the motors terminals are shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the mot
or is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarizes ope
ration.
S1 S2 S3 S4 Result
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor free runs
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
Table: 7.6 H-bridge switch operation
35. 7.5.2 Pin Connections
Fig: 7.7 pin configuration of L293D
7.5.3 Features
600ma output current capability per channel
1.2A peak output current (non repetitive)
Enable facility over temperature protection
high noise immunity
internal clamp diodes
7.6 Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a variable resistor which is used to vary the resistance by rotating
the shaft. Potentiometers are available from 100 ohm to 470Kohm (or more).Potent
iometer is a voltage divider. If we connect lead A to Vcc and lead B to ground then
you get voltages from 0 to Vcc at lead W. Mainly Potentiometer are used to gener
ate reference voltage for LM324.
Fig. 7.8 Potentiometer