Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development states that social interaction plays a key role in the development of cognition. Children can solve problems with guidance from others that they cannot solve independently. Vygotsky identified the "zone of proximal development" as the difference between what a learner can do with guidance and without it. Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages through which children progress as they interact with their environment. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains that we learn from the consequences of our behaviors - behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated.

1. LEARNING THEORIES
Prepared by
Ms. Theertha P Krishna
1stYear M.Sc Nursing
MIMS CON

2. INTRODUCTION
• Learning can be described as a relatively
permanent change in the behavior of an
individual based on his/her experiences or
discoveries.
• Learning theories provide the theoretical
framework to understand how people learn.
• We know that learning is a dynamic, lifelong
process that is unique to each individual.

3. Meaning of Learning
• The behavior of an individual is changed
through direct or indirect experiences.
• This change in behavior brought about by
experience is commonly known as learning.

4. Definition of Learning
• “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or
the strengthening or weakening of old
behavior as the result of experience”.‖
-By Henry P. Smith

5. Definition of Learning
• “Learning is a process of progressive
behaviour through experience and training”.‖
-B.F. Skinner
• “Learning involves acquisition of knowledge,
habits and attitude”.‖
-Crow and Crow

6. Modes Of Learning
1. Transmission
2. Acquisition
3. Accretion
4. Emergence

7. Modes Of Learning
Transmission : It is the process by which
information; knowledge, ideas and skills are
tough to theirs through purposeful, conscious
telling, demonstration and guidance.
• Acquisition: It is conscious choice to learn.
This method includes exploring,
experimenting, self instruction, inquiry and
general curiosity.

8. Modes Of Learning
• Accretion - Is the gradual, often subconscious
or subliminal, process by which we learn
things like language culture, habits, prejudices
and social rules and behaviour.
• Emergence- It is the result of patterning,
structuring and the construction of new ideas
and meaning that did not exist before.

9. FORMS OF LEARNING
1. Formal Learning
2. Informal Learning
3. Non-Formal Learning

10. FORMAL LEARNING
• Formal learning: learning typically provided by
an education or training institution, structured
and leading to certification. Formal learning is
intentional from the learner‘s perspective.

11. INFORMAL LEARNING
• Informal learning: learning resulting from
daily life activities related to work, family or
leisure. It is not structured and typically does
not lead to certification. Informal learning may
be intentional but in most cases it is non-
intentional (or ―incidental/ random).

12. NON-FORMAL LEARNING
• Non-formal learning: learning that is not
provided by an education or training
institution and typically does not lead to
certification. It is, however, structured. Non-
formal learning is intentional from the
learner‘s perspective.

13. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING:
i) Learning is the change in behavior
ii) Change in behavior caused by learning is
relatively enduring or permanent
iii) Learning is a continuous life long process
iv) Learning is a Universal process
v) Learning is purposive and goal directed
vi) Learning involves reconstructions of
experiences:

14. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
vii) Learning is the product of activity and
environment
viii) Learning is transferable from one situation
to another
ix) Learning does not necessarily imply
improvement
x) Learning does not necessarily imply the
development in right direction

15. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
xi) Learning helps in bringing desirable changes
in behavior
xii) Learning help in the attainment of teaching
Learning objective
xiii) Learning helps in the proper growth and
development
xiv) Learning helps in the balanced development
of personality

16. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF READINESS
Readiness implies a degree of concentration
and eagerness. Individuals learn best when
they are physically, mentally, and emotionally
ready to learn, and do not learn well if they
see no reason for learning.

17. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE
The principle of exercise states that those things
most often repeated are best remembered. It
is the basis of drill and practice. It has been
proven that students learn best and retain
information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.

18. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF EFFECT
The principle of effect is based on the emotional
reaction of the student. It has a direct
relationship to motivation. The principle of
effect is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and that learning is weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling.

19. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF PRIMACY
The state of being first, often creates a strong,
almost unshakable, impression. Things
learned first create a strong impression in the
mind that is difficult to erase. For the
instructor, this means that what is taught must
be right the first time.

20. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF RECENCY
The principle of recency states that things most
recently learned are best remembered.

21. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF INTENSITY
The principle of intensity implies that a student
will learn more from the real thing than from
a substitute. A student is likely to gain greater
understanding of tasks by performing them
rather than merely reading about them.

22. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF REQUIREMENT
The law of requirement states that "we must
have something to obtain or do something." It
can be ability, skill, instrument or anything
that may help us to learn or gain something.

23. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• PRINCIPLES OF FREEDOM
The principle of freedom states that things
freely learned are best learned. If no freedom
is granted, students may have little interest in
learning.

24. THEORIES OFLEARNING

25. Schema’s of learning theories
BEHAVIOURISM
COGNITIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVISM
HUMANISM
MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
GESTALT THEORY

26. THEORIES OFLEARNING

27. BEHAVIORISM
• Behaviorism, also known as behavioral
psychology, is a theory of learning based on
the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning. Conditioning occurs
through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our actions.

28. THEORIES OF BEHAVIOURISM
1.Thorndike’s Theory of Trial and Error
2. Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
3. Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
4. Kohler’s Theory of Insightful Learning
5. Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory
6. Lewin’s Field Theory
7. Tolman’s Sign Theory
8. Gagne’s Theory of Learning

29. 1.Thorndike’s Theory of Trial and Error
• The famous Psychologist, Edward L. Thorndike,
(1874-1949) was the initiator of the theory of
Trial and Error learning.
• Edward Thorndike attempted to develop an
objective experimental method to study the
behavior of cats and dogs.

30. • He designed a so-called ‘puzzle box’ in which
an animal was placed.
• Each puzzle box had a lever or mechanism
that would release the door lock if the lever or
mechanism was pressed.
• The animal had to learn to press the lever or
mechanism to open the box.
• The reward of being freed from the box
strengthened the association between the
stimulus (being placed in a closed box) and an
appropriate action.

31. 1.Thorndike’s Theory of Trial and Error
• Thorndike concluded that rewards act to
strengthen stimulus-response associations.
• Stimulus Response Reward

32. 2. Pavlov’s Theory of Classical
Conditioning
• Russian Psychologist IVAN PAVLOV (1849-
1936), who advocated the Theory of Classical
Conditioning.
• It is simply a stimulus-response type of
learning, where in place of natural stimulus
like food water, sex, etc, an artificial stimulus
like the sound of the bell, sight of light of a
definite color, etc can evoke a natural
response.

33. • Perfect association occurs between the types of
stimuli presented together.
• As a result, after some time the natural stimulus
can be substituted or replaced by an artificial
stimulus, which in turn is able to evoke the natural
response.

34. 3. Skinner’s Theory of Operant
Conditioning
• B.F. Skinner (1948) conducted series of
experiments with animals, put forward his
theory of Operant Conditioning for learning.
•

37. 4. Kohler’s Theory of Insightful
Learning
• German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler (1887)
originated a learning theory named Insightful
learning.
• It is concerned with the nature of perception,
a learner perceives a thing as a whole.
• His experiments on chimpanzees
demonstrated learning by insight.
• The theory of insightful learning made
learning a purposeful and goal oriented task.

40. 5. Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory
• Clark L. Hull (1884-1952).

41. Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory
• The things within the learner definitely act
and react with what is received in terms of
stimuli from the external environment, before
emitting of an overt response.
• Hull provided the amended S-O-R formula in
place of the traditional S-R approach.

42. Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory
• He termed the environmental influences upon
the individual as “inputs” and his responses as
“Outputs” and what goes from the learner as
“processes”.
• Hull’s theory attached sufficient importance to
the needs, drives, incentives reinforcement
and adequate motivations for achieving
satisfactory results in the process of teaching
and learning.

43. Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory
• The greatest contribution of Hull’s theory lies
in its emphasis on linking the learning to the
needs of the learners. He advocated the need
based goals, curricula and methods of
teaching.

44. 6. Lewin’s Field Theory
• German psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
put forward a theory named Lewin’s Field
theory in 1917.
• Perception is the key issue in Lewin’s theory of
learning.
• Learning is a relativistic process by which a
learner develops a new insight or changes the
old views.

45. Lewin’s Field Theory
• The development of this new insight or
change in the old views can be explained
through the structuring or restructuring of
one’s life space i.e. the cognitive structure or
field of one’s perception and understanding.
• The learner begins to make distinction
between reality and unreality at different
levels of his life, space and try to act with the
knowledge, of what leads to what.

47. Lewin’s Field Theory
• Field theory Field theory considers learning as
a change in the cognitive structure of the life
space resulting from the locomotion of the
person from one region to another. The
change in the cognitive structure are caused
by vector forces operating in the psychological
field.

48. 7. TOLMAN’S SIGN THEORY
• Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959), an
American psychologist propounded his theory
as Tolman’s Sign learning or Sign Gestalt
learning.
• He argues that all learning is purposeful and
goal oriented rather than response oriented.

49. TOLMAN’S SIGN THEORY
• Learner develops cognitive maps or mental
representations (Sign Gestalts) in perfect
correlation with the goal, to achieve the
environment, in which he has to strive.
• The cognitive map becomes effective in
influencing one’s behavior in meeting one’s
need or purpose or in getting reinforcement.
• Every learner acts according to his cognitive
mapping of the environment to reach his goal.

50. 8. Gagne’s Theory of Learning
• Robert Gagne, the famous American psychologist
put forward a theory of learning.
• According to Gagne, Learning is supposed to
result in the enhancement of a person’s
performance and capabilities by acquiring new
ways of behaving.
• He declared that all types of human learning may
result in the development of human capabilities
in terms of five components namely; Verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

51. Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning.
1. Gain attention.
2. Inform students of the objective.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.
4. Present the content.
5. Provide learning guidance.
6. Elicit performance (practice).
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job.

53. GESTALT THEORY
• The Gestalt theory was to a great extent
propagated by Köhler, Koffka and
Wertheimer.
• Gestalt theory postulates that knowledge is
grouped into elements according to the
following principles: proximity,
similarity/differentiation, closure and
simplicity.

54. MAX WERTHEIMER

55. WOLFGANG KOHLER

56. KURT KOFKKA

57. GESTALT PRINCIPLES
• Law of Proximity
• Law of Similarity
• Law of Closure
• Law of Good Continuation
• Law of Good Pragnanz
• Law of Figure/Ground

58. Law of Proximity
• The law of proximity
states that when objects
appear close to one
another they tend to be
perceived as a group.

59. Law of Similarity
• The law of similarity
captures the idea that
when we look at
objects that are
similar to each other,
we tend to group
them together.

60. Law of Closure
• The law of closure
captures the idea
that when we see
incomplete elements
in a visual, our brains
tend to fill in the
gaps and see it as a
whole.

61. Law of Good Continuation
• The mind continuous
visual patterns.
• The eye continues in
the direction it is
going.
• The principle of
continuity predicts the
preference for
continous figures.

62. Law of Good Pragnanz
• The word pragnanz is a
German term meaning
"good figure." The law of
Pragnanz is sometimes
referred to as the law of
good figure or the law of
simplicity.
• This law holds that objects
in the environment are
seen in a way that makes
them appear as simple as
possible.

63. Law of Figure/Ground
• Figure–ground
organization is a type of
perceptual grouping
which is a vital necessity
for recognizing objects
through vision.

64. COGNITIVISM
1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development.
1. Jean Piaget

65. 1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
• According to Piaget, children shape their own
conceptions of reality through continuous
interaction with their environment. Cognitive
development therefore occurs as children
adapt to their environment, thus building
their sense of reality.
• Learning is, therefore, a constant cycle of
Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium;
Assimilation

66. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.
1. The sensorimotor stage:
• Stage runs from birth to 2 years.
• Their learning is mainly by trial and error.
• The child spends their time learning basic
Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea
that something still exists when you can’t see
it).

67. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.
2. The preoperational stage:
• Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years.
• The child develops and the ability to think
Symbolically (the idea that one thing can
stand for another; words for example, or
objects).

68. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.
3. The concrete operational stage:
• Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years.
• They also develop the ability
to Conserve (understand that something stays
the same quantity even if it looks different).
• Children gain new competencies in thinking
and become involved in events outside of
their lives.

69. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development.
4. The formal operational stage
• Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood.
• Learners are able to think about abstract
relationships (as in algebra), understand
methodology, formulate hypotheses, and
think about possibilities and abstractions like
justice.

70. • According to Piaget, the whole process is active and
requires the rediscovery and reconstructing of
knowledge across the entire process of Stages.
• If the experience is a repeat one, it fits easily into
the child’s cognitive structure (that is it is
assimilated into the existing cognitive structure) so
that the child maintains mental equilibrium. If the
experience is different or new, the child loses
equilibrium (hence disequilibrium), and alters
his/her cognitive structure to accommodate the
new conditions. In this way, the child builds more
and more adequate cognitive structures.

71. CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore,
learning must be based on the issues that require
personal interpretation.
• The construction of meaning requires an
understanding of ‘wholes’ (the bigger picture) as
well as parts, and parts must be understood in the
context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process
focuses on primary concepts, not on isolated facts.
•

72. CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Emphasis is placed on the application of
knowledge as opposed to a mere acquisition
of decontextualised facts.
• Social aspects of learning form a crucial part
of the constructivist view of learning. This
means that people also learn from one
another and not only in isolation from others.

73. 1.Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning
• Lev Vygotsky

74. Overview of Vygotsky Theory

75. More Knowledgeable Other
• It refers to someone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than
the learner, with respect to a particular task,
process, or concept.

76. Zone of Proximal Development
• This is an important concept that relates to
the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can
achieve with guidance and encouragement
from a skilled partner.

78. Zone of Proximal Development
• Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal
Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be
given
• Allowing the child to develop skills they will
then use on their own
• Developing higher mental functions.

79. Features of ZPD
• Scaffolding
• Reciprocal teaching

80. Scaffolding
• Appropriate assistance given by the teacher
to assist the learner accomplish a task.
• Requires that an instructor shows example
how to solve a problem, while controlling the
learning environment so that students can
take things step by step expanding their
knowledge without excessive frustration

81. Reciprocal teaching
• A highly successful teaching method, it
provides an environment of open dialogue
between student and teacher which goes
beyond a simple question and answer session.

82. 2. Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum
• Jerome Bruner

83. The spiral curriculum
• Students revisit the same topic multiple times
throughout their school career. This reinforces the
learning each time they return to the subject.
• The complexity of the topic increases each time a
student revisits it. This allows progression through
the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability
develops with age.
• When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are
linked with ones they have previously learned. The
student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas
enables them to grasp the more difficult elements
of the topic in a stronger way

84. Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation
• Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of
knowledge through physical actions.
• Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of
knowledge stored via visual images.
• Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and
symbols to describe experiences.

86. HUMANISM
• Humanism is a philosophy of reason and
science in the pursuit of knowledge
• Humanism is a philosophy for people who
think for themselves. They challenge and
explore
• Humanism is a philosophy for creating and
determining one’s destiny
• Humanism is a psychological approach that
emphasizes the study of the whole person.

87. TYPES OF HUMANISM
• Literary
• Renaissance
• Cultural
• Psychological
• Philosophical
• Christian
• Modern
• Secular
• Religious

88. Key Humanist Values and
Principles
• Humanists believe that nothing is more
important than people.
• Humanist value the human powers of
reasoning , imagining, and love.
• Humanist highlight the importance of concern
for the world and for the future
• Humanistic psychologists look at human
behavior not only through the eyes of the
observer, but through the eyes of the person
doing the behaving.

89. Humanism Beliefs
• Humanists believe that there is not enough
evidence to decide whether or not God exists.
• Humanists believe that this is the only life
humans have.
• Humanists stress that morals are a product of
human imagination and reason.

90. FIGURES IN HUMANISM

91. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

92. Self Actualization
• "What a man can be, he must be.“ A. Maslow
1954
• Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954)
stated that human motivation is based on
people seeking fulfillment and change through
personal growth. Maslow described self-
actualized people as those who were fulfilled and
doing all they were capable of.
• The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962)
refers to the need for personal growth that is
present throughout a person’s life.

93. Mezirow
• Jack Mezirow (1927) is an
American and emeritus
Professor sociologist of
Adult and Continuing
Education at Teachers
College,Columbia University.
• Transformative Learning: is
an adult education based
theory that suggests ways in
which adults make meaning
of their lives.

94. PAULO FREIRE
• (1921-1997) Brazilian
educationalist: pioneer of
adult literacy programmes as
a means of raising the
consciousness
(conscientization) of South
American peasants and urban
underclass. Critic of the
"banking"model of education,
in which the elite own and
construct the knowledge, and
the poor are excluded.
• Conscientization: focuses on
achieving an in-depth
understanding of the world

95. Humanism and Education
Making the
school
everybody’s
house!

96. Purpose of Humanistic Education
• To offer a foundation for personal growth and
development so that learning will continue
throughout life in a self-directed manner (lifelong
learners).
• To provide intelligence, self-discipline, self-
respect, creativity, high motivation, affirmative
attitude, team player, joyful living, and good
health.
• Education is about creating a need within the
child, or instilling within the child self-motivation
• Humanism is about rewarding yourself

98. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Theory
• Howard Gardner
• Gardner perceived
intelligence as the
ability to solve
problems or make
products that are useful
in one or more cultural
settings.

99. Gardner’s 7 Intelligences
• Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and
use language in written and spoken forms to
express oneself.
• Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve
problems logically, to solve mathematical
problems and to perform scientific investigations.
• Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation,
composition and performance of musical
patterns, including the ability to recognise tone,
pitch and rhythm.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental
abilities to coordinate body movements to solve
problems.

100. Gardner’s 7 Intelligences
• Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognise
and use patterns in a wide or confined space.
• Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to
understand the desires, motivations and
intentions of other people.
• Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to
understand your own fears, feelings and
motivations.

101. Importance of multiple intelligence in
the classroom
• Gardner suggested that
the intelligences rarely operate independently
and compliment each other as students learn
new skills and solve problems. He also
commented that the intelligences are amoral,
meaning they can be used for constructive or
destructive purposes.

102. Importance of multiple intelligence in
the classroom
• Gardner believes that all
seven intelligences are required to live life well
and education systems should include all
seven not just the more academic first two.

103. The Wheel of Domains McKenzi