1. The document discusses learning and behavioral medicine. It provides definitions of learning from various psychologists and educationists. 2. Key aspects of learning discussed include it being a process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes and skills through experience. It is influenced by one's environment and can take place anywhere. 3. The document also examines theories of learning including Thorndike's trial and error theory, Pavlov's classical conditioning, and Skinner's operant conditioning theory. It provides examples and explanations of each.
This PPT contains topic Learning from Unit 3 Cognitive Process of the subject Psychology for F.Y.B.SC.Nursing.
Learning, as a cognitive process, involves acquiring knowledge, skills, understanding, and behaviors through experience, study, practice, or teaching. It's a fundamental aspect of human cognition, enabling individuals to adapt, solve problems, make decisions, and improve their performance in various domains of life. Cognitive processes play a critical role in how we perceive, encode, store, and retrieve information during the learning process.
The document discusses learning and behavior modification techniques. It defines learning and discusses characteristics of the learning process. It also covers factors that influence learning like maturity, motivation, experience and training. Several theories of learning are explained, including Thorndike's theory of trial and error, Pavlov's classical conditioning theory, and Bandura's social learning theory. Behavior modification techniques like reinforcement, modeling, extinction, and time out are also described.
This document discusses psychological dimensions of curriculum development. It covers various theories of learning including association theories, field theories, and perceptual theories. Association theories include stimulus-response theory, respondent conditioning, and operant conditioning. Field theories view learning as perceiving wholes rather than parts. Perceptual theories see learning as self-perception. The document also discusses factors that affect learning, such as interests and attitudes, as well as techniques to improve learning like feedback and distributed practice. Overall, it provides an overview of psychological principles relevant to curriculum design and learning.
Principles are fundamental rules or concepts that guide education. There are starting, guiding, and ending principles. Starting principles involve student characteristics, guiding principles are instructional methods, and ending principles are educational goals. Learning principles include that learning is experiential, cooperative, evolutionary, and involves problem-solving. Thorndike's laws of readiness, exercise, and effect and additional laws of primacy, recency, and intensity also guide learning. Learning theories include behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, experiential learning, humanism, andragogy, pragmatism, and sensory learning. Principles provide compasses to guide education practices.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are several theories and laws of learning. Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. Pavlov's classical conditioning theory explains how behaviors can become reflexive through repeated pairing with stimuli. Skinner's operant conditioning theory proposes that behaviors are shaped by their consequences - behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency.
This document provides an overview of learning, including definitions of learning, types of learning, learning theories, and factors that affect learning. It discusses three main learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanism. Behaviorism, proposed by theorists like Pavlov and Skinner, asserts that learning occurs through conditioning and reinforcement. Cognitivism, based on Gestalt psychology, views learning as a process of organizing and interpreting new information. Humanism emphasizes affective and self-actualizing learning experiences. The document also outlines the learning process and discusses characteristics of learning like different domains and styles of learning.
Edward LEE Thorndike Educational Theory.pptxKristineRanyah
Educational Theory by Edward Thorndike. He was the first American psychologist who put forward the Trial and Error Theory of learning.
*Three Fundamental Laws of Learning
*Educational Implications of Law of Exercise
*Educational Implications of Law of Readiness
Learning involves a permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are many types of learning including motor, verbal, concept, and discrimination learning. Learning is influenced by factors related to the learner, teacher, and content. Several theories aim to explain the process of learning, including Thorndike's law of effect, Pavlov's classical conditioning, and Skinner's operant conditioning. Thorndike's theory proposes that behaviors followed by satisfaction become strengthened over time through rewards. Pavlov's theory demonstrates that a learned reflex can be developed by associating a stimulus with a response. Skinner's theory shows that behaviors can be shaped by reinforcing consequences.
This PPT contains topic Learning from Unit 3 Cognitive Process of the subject Psychology for F.Y.B.SC.Nursing.
Learning, as a cognitive process, involves acquiring knowledge, skills, understanding, and behaviors through experience, study, practice, or teaching. It's a fundamental aspect of human cognition, enabling individuals to adapt, solve problems, make decisions, and improve their performance in various domains of life. Cognitive processes play a critical role in how we perceive, encode, store, and retrieve information during the learning process.
The document discusses learning and behavior modification techniques. It defines learning and discusses characteristics of the learning process. It also covers factors that influence learning like maturity, motivation, experience and training. Several theories of learning are explained, including Thorndike's theory of trial and error, Pavlov's classical conditioning theory, and Bandura's social learning theory. Behavior modification techniques like reinforcement, modeling, extinction, and time out are also described.
This document discusses psychological dimensions of curriculum development. It covers various theories of learning including association theories, field theories, and perceptual theories. Association theories include stimulus-response theory, respondent conditioning, and operant conditioning. Field theories view learning as perceiving wholes rather than parts. Perceptual theories see learning as self-perception. The document also discusses factors that affect learning, such as interests and attitudes, as well as techniques to improve learning like feedback and distributed practice. Overall, it provides an overview of psychological principles relevant to curriculum design and learning.
Principles are fundamental rules or concepts that guide education. There are starting, guiding, and ending principles. Starting principles involve student characteristics, guiding principles are instructional methods, and ending principles are educational goals. Learning principles include that learning is experiential, cooperative, evolutionary, and involves problem-solving. Thorndike's laws of readiness, exercise, and effect and additional laws of primacy, recency, and intensity also guide learning. Learning theories include behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, experiential learning, humanism, andragogy, pragmatism, and sensory learning. Principles provide compasses to guide education practices.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are several theories and laws of learning. Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. Pavlov's classical conditioning theory explains how behaviors can become reflexive through repeated pairing with stimuli. Skinner's operant conditioning theory proposes that behaviors are shaped by their consequences - behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency.
This document provides an overview of learning, including definitions of learning, types of learning, learning theories, and factors that affect learning. It discusses three main learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanism. Behaviorism, proposed by theorists like Pavlov and Skinner, asserts that learning occurs through conditioning and reinforcement. Cognitivism, based on Gestalt psychology, views learning as a process of organizing and interpreting new information. Humanism emphasizes affective and self-actualizing learning experiences. The document also outlines the learning process and discusses characteristics of learning like different domains and styles of learning.
Edward LEE Thorndike Educational Theory.pptxKristineRanyah
Educational Theory by Edward Thorndike. He was the first American psychologist who put forward the Trial and Error Theory of learning.
*Three Fundamental Laws of Learning
*Educational Implications of Law of Exercise
*Educational Implications of Law of Readiness
Learning involves a permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are many types of learning including motor, verbal, concept, and discrimination learning. Learning is influenced by factors related to the learner, teacher, and content. Several theories aim to explain the process of learning, including Thorndike's law of effect, Pavlov's classical conditioning, and Skinner's operant conditioning. Thorndike's theory proposes that behaviors followed by satisfaction become strengthened over time through rewards. Pavlov's theory demonstrates that a learned reflex can be developed by associating a stimulus with a response. Skinner's theory shows that behaviors can be shaped by reinforcing consequences.
Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development states that social interaction plays a key role in the development of cognition. Children can solve problems with guidance from others that they cannot solve independently. Vygotsky identified the "zone of proximal development" as the difference between what a learner can do with guidance and without it. Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages through which children progress as they interact with their environment. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains that we learn from the consequences of our behaviors - behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated.
1. The document provides an overview of learning, including definitions of learning, the nature and characteristics of learning, types of learning (e.g. motor, verbal, concept), domains of learning, factors influencing learning, and theories of learning including Thorndike's law of effect and Pavlov's classical conditioning.
2. It discusses Thorndike's experiment with cats in a puzzle box to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Thorndike's theory was that learning establishes connections between stimuli and responses, and that correct responses are reinforced through rewards.
3. Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment with dogs is described, where he conditioned them to salivate when they heard a bell through repeated pairing of the bell
its all about learning and u can find out all your doubts related to learning and if you have any more information so just email us sharmasandeep328@gmail.com.....
Learning process- Theories, Principles and Characteristics (Lecture-1)-1)Zulfiquer Ahmed Amin
Behaviorism is a learning theory based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. It focuses on observable behaviors and interactions between stimuli and responses. The three major behaviorist learning theories are:
1. Contiguity theory - any stimulus and response connected in time and space will form an association.
2. Classical conditioning - involuntary learned responses, exemplified by Pavlov's dog experiment.
3. Operant conditioning - voluntary behaviors are shaped by consequences like reinforcement and punishment.
Behaviorism was influential in education, emphasizing reinforcement, punishment, and a structured teacher-centered approach, but it was criticized for being too reductionist and not accounting for internal cognitive processes.
This document discusses learning theories and principles. It defines learning as a process that results in relatively permanent changes to thinking, feeling and behavior. It describes several important learning theories including:
- Kolb's experiential learning cycle of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.
- Thorndike's laws of learning including readiness, exercise and effect.
- Four learning styles - diverger, assimilator, converger and accommodator - based on how people perceive and process information.
- Characteristics of learning such as producing behavioral changes through practice and experience over time.
This document discusses different theories and concepts related to learning. It begins by defining learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior resulting from experience. It then outlines several theories of learning, including:
Classical conditioning, as discovered by Ivan Pavlov - learning through stimulus-response connections. Operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner - learning through consequences of responses. Cognitive theory - learning through mental processes of acquiring and understanding information. Social learning theory emphasizes learning through observing others. The document also discusses principles of learning and defines a learning organization.
This document provides an overview of educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses several definitions of educational psychology over time and then describes it as the study of learning and development in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, and the psychology of teaching. The document outlines contents related to the psychology of learning, including the main characteristics of learning, theories like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. It also discusses Thorndike's trial and error theory of learning and Kohler's insight learning theory. Finally, it covers student variables that influence learning like individual learning styles, cooperative vs competitive learning, and gender differences.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses definitions of educational psychology over time and defines it today as the study of learning and development in educational settings. Major theories of learning covered include classical and operant conditioning, and theories are discussed like Thorndike's law of effect and trial-and-error learning. Student variables that influence learning are also introduced, like individual versus group learning styles. Theories and concepts are explained through examples and implications for teaching are outlined.
Edward Thorndike developed the Stimulus-Response Theory and three Laws of Learning: the Law of Readiness, the Law of Exercise, and the Law of Effect. The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes will be repeated, while behaviors followed by unsatisfying outcomes will not. The Law of Readiness proposes that learning is best when students are physically and mentally prepared. The Law of Exercise suggests that repeated behaviors are most likely to be remembered. These laws form the basis of Thorndike's Stimulus-Response Theory of learning through connections between behaviors and their consequences.
This document discusses various theories of learning including:
- Thorndike's theory of trial and error learning and laws of learning.
- Pavlov's classical conditioning theory.
- Skinner's operant conditioning theory and principles of reinforcement.
- Gestalt psychology's theory of insightful learning and the importance of seeing the whole.
- Bandura's social learning theory of observational learning.
Theories of transfer of learning and factors affecting learning are also presented. The document emphasizes applying learning theories to maximize positive learning experiences.
Learning By Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Ph.D Education MEDIUFreelanced
This document discusses learning theories and how to increase learning. It defines learning and provides theories of learning like behaviorism, cognitivism, social learning theory, and multiple intelligences. It also outlines laws of learning including readiness, exercise, and effect. Finally, it suggests ways to incorporate learning theories into classroom practices and increase learning through activities that appeal to different learning styles and intelligences.
This document discusses several learning theories including behaviorism, connectionism, and cognitive theories. It summarizes Edward Thorndike's experiments with animals in puzzle boxes which showed that the connection between stimulus and response is strengthened with repetition leading to his laws of learning and connectionism perspective. It also discusses how behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and cognitive theories emphasize internal mental processes. Classical conditioning and its application in education is explained through reducing student anxiety.
Educational learning theories influence the teaching process in several ways. There are five main types of learning theories: cognitivism, behaviorism, constructivism, humanism, and connectivism. Cognitivism focuses on mental processes and how we understand learning. Behaviorism sees learning as influenced by external factors through reinforcement. Constructivism views learning as unique to each student and based on their experiences. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and meeting student needs. Connectivism centers on forming connections with others and one's environment. Learning theories provide models for instruction to improve student learning.
1) Edward Thorndike's trial and error learning theory proposes that learning occurs through a process of testing different responses and retaining those that are successful.
2) In Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes, the cats initially responded randomly but eventually learned to open the door by pulling a string, eliminating unsuccessful responses over time.
3) Thorndike identified factors in trial and error learning as motives, stimuli, responses, consequences, and fixation on successful responses. His laws of learning also addressed readiness, exercise, effect, use and disuse.
Chapter 3 Learning & Theories of Learning.pdfTameneKeneni
This document provides an overview of learning and theories of learning. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Key elements of learning definitions include that it is a change in behavior, occurs through practice/experience, and changes must be relatively permanent. The document also discusses the nature, characteristics, factors influencing learning, and laws of learning such as readiness, exercise, and effect. Finally, it briefly introduces six main theories of learning: behaviorism, cognitivism, social learning theory, social constructivism, multiple intelligences, and brain-based learning.
This document provides an overview of learning and learning theories. It defines learning, discusses the domains, features, principles, and process of learning. It also summarizes four major learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental influences and conditioning. Cognitivism sees learning as the processing of information in memory. Constructivism emphasizes learning through experience and knowledge construction. Humanism views learning as a personal act to fulfill one's potential.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. It is a continuous process that occurs through interactions with the environment from birth to death. Learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills, and attitudes and can take various forms including skill learning, perceptual learning, conceptual learning, associative learning, appreciative learning, and attitudinal learning.
The presentation is prepared according to the syllabus of Basic BSc nursing given by INC. for the better understanding and knowledge please refer the books. the learning is the information gaining process where the individual interact with the environment and gain knowledge.
Lecture notes for Family in sociology and medical anthropologyAYONELSON
The document discusses definitions of family from various sociologists and anthropologists. It provides definitions of family as a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. Family is also defined as a set of relationships between kins through blood, marriage or adoption. The document also discusses different classifications and types of families such as nuclear vs extended, patriarchal vs matriarchal, and classifications based on residence like patrilocal, matrilocal etc. It provides examples of different family structures from societies around the world.
MEMORY, PROCESS AND FORGETTING IN PSYCHOLOGYAYONELSON
- Encoding is the first stage of memory, where sensory information is processed and represented so it can be further processed by memory systems.
- Storage is the second stage, where received information is retained over time.
- Retrieval is the third stage, referring to locating stored information and bringing it to awareness when needed.
Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development states that social interaction plays a key role in the development of cognition. Children can solve problems with guidance from others that they cannot solve independently. Vygotsky identified the "zone of proximal development" as the difference between what a learner can do with guidance and without it. Piaget's stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages through which children progress as they interact with their environment. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains that we learn from the consequences of our behaviors - behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated.
1. The document provides an overview of learning, including definitions of learning, the nature and characteristics of learning, types of learning (e.g. motor, verbal, concept), domains of learning, factors influencing learning, and theories of learning including Thorndike's law of effect and Pavlov's classical conditioning.
2. It discusses Thorndike's experiment with cats in a puzzle box to demonstrate trial-and-error learning. Thorndike's theory was that learning establishes connections between stimuli and responses, and that correct responses are reinforced through rewards.
3. Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment with dogs is described, where he conditioned them to salivate when they heard a bell through repeated pairing of the bell
its all about learning and u can find out all your doubts related to learning and if you have any more information so just email us sharmasandeep328@gmail.com.....
Learning process- Theories, Principles and Characteristics (Lecture-1)-1)Zulfiquer Ahmed Amin
Behaviorism is a learning theory based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. It focuses on observable behaviors and interactions between stimuli and responses. The three major behaviorist learning theories are:
1. Contiguity theory - any stimulus and response connected in time and space will form an association.
2. Classical conditioning - involuntary learned responses, exemplified by Pavlov's dog experiment.
3. Operant conditioning - voluntary behaviors are shaped by consequences like reinforcement and punishment.
Behaviorism was influential in education, emphasizing reinforcement, punishment, and a structured teacher-centered approach, but it was criticized for being too reductionist and not accounting for internal cognitive processes.
This document discusses learning theories and principles. It defines learning as a process that results in relatively permanent changes to thinking, feeling and behavior. It describes several important learning theories including:
- Kolb's experiential learning cycle of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.
- Thorndike's laws of learning including readiness, exercise and effect.
- Four learning styles - diverger, assimilator, converger and accommodator - based on how people perceive and process information.
- Characteristics of learning such as producing behavioral changes through practice and experience over time.
This document discusses different theories and concepts related to learning. It begins by defining learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior resulting from experience. It then outlines several theories of learning, including:
Classical conditioning, as discovered by Ivan Pavlov - learning through stimulus-response connections. Operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner - learning through consequences of responses. Cognitive theory - learning through mental processes of acquiring and understanding information. Social learning theory emphasizes learning through observing others. The document also discusses principles of learning and defines a learning organization.
This document provides an overview of educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses several definitions of educational psychology over time and then describes it as the study of learning and development in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, and the psychology of teaching. The document outlines contents related to the psychology of learning, including the main characteristics of learning, theories like classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. It also discusses Thorndike's trial and error theory of learning and Kohler's insight learning theory. Finally, it covers student variables that influence learning like individual learning styles, cooperative vs competitive learning, and gender differences.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in educational psychology and theories of learning. It discusses definitions of educational psychology over time and defines it today as the study of learning and development in educational settings. Major theories of learning covered include classical and operant conditioning, and theories are discussed like Thorndike's law of effect and trial-and-error learning. Student variables that influence learning are also introduced, like individual versus group learning styles. Theories and concepts are explained through examples and implications for teaching are outlined.
Edward Thorndike developed the Stimulus-Response Theory and three Laws of Learning: the Law of Readiness, the Law of Exercise, and the Law of Effect. The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes will be repeated, while behaviors followed by unsatisfying outcomes will not. The Law of Readiness proposes that learning is best when students are physically and mentally prepared. The Law of Exercise suggests that repeated behaviors are most likely to be remembered. These laws form the basis of Thorndike's Stimulus-Response Theory of learning through connections between behaviors and their consequences.
This document discusses various theories of learning including:
- Thorndike's theory of trial and error learning and laws of learning.
- Pavlov's classical conditioning theory.
- Skinner's operant conditioning theory and principles of reinforcement.
- Gestalt psychology's theory of insightful learning and the importance of seeing the whole.
- Bandura's social learning theory of observational learning.
Theories of transfer of learning and factors affecting learning are also presented. The document emphasizes applying learning theories to maximize positive learning experiences.
Learning By Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Ph.D Education MEDIUFreelanced
This document discusses learning theories and how to increase learning. It defines learning and provides theories of learning like behaviorism, cognitivism, social learning theory, and multiple intelligences. It also outlines laws of learning including readiness, exercise, and effect. Finally, it suggests ways to incorporate learning theories into classroom practices and increase learning through activities that appeal to different learning styles and intelligences.
This document discusses several learning theories including behaviorism, connectionism, and cognitive theories. It summarizes Edward Thorndike's experiments with animals in puzzle boxes which showed that the connection between stimulus and response is strengthened with repetition leading to his laws of learning and connectionism perspective. It also discusses how behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and cognitive theories emphasize internal mental processes. Classical conditioning and its application in education is explained through reducing student anxiety.
Educational learning theories influence the teaching process in several ways. There are five main types of learning theories: cognitivism, behaviorism, constructivism, humanism, and connectivism. Cognitivism focuses on mental processes and how we understand learning. Behaviorism sees learning as influenced by external factors through reinforcement. Constructivism views learning as unique to each student and based on their experiences. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and meeting student needs. Connectivism centers on forming connections with others and one's environment. Learning theories provide models for instruction to improve student learning.
1) Edward Thorndike's trial and error learning theory proposes that learning occurs through a process of testing different responses and retaining those that are successful.
2) In Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes, the cats initially responded randomly but eventually learned to open the door by pulling a string, eliminating unsuccessful responses over time.
3) Thorndike identified factors in trial and error learning as motives, stimuli, responses, consequences, and fixation on successful responses. His laws of learning also addressed readiness, exercise, effect, use and disuse.
Chapter 3 Learning & Theories of Learning.pdfTameneKeneni
This document provides an overview of learning and theories of learning. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. Key elements of learning definitions include that it is a change in behavior, occurs through practice/experience, and changes must be relatively permanent. The document also discusses the nature, characteristics, factors influencing learning, and laws of learning such as readiness, exercise, and effect. Finally, it briefly introduces six main theories of learning: behaviorism, cognitivism, social learning theory, social constructivism, multiple intelligences, and brain-based learning.
This document provides an overview of learning and learning theories. It defines learning, discusses the domains, features, principles, and process of learning. It also summarizes four major learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental influences and conditioning. Cognitivism sees learning as the processing of information in memory. Constructivism emphasizes learning through experience and knowledge construction. Humanism views learning as a personal act to fulfill one's potential.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. It is a continuous process that occurs through interactions with the environment from birth to death. Learning involves acquiring knowledge, skills, and attitudes and can take various forms including skill learning, perceptual learning, conceptual learning, associative learning, appreciative learning, and attitudinal learning.
The presentation is prepared according to the syllabus of Basic BSc nursing given by INC. for the better understanding and knowledge please refer the books. the learning is the information gaining process where the individual interact with the environment and gain knowledge.
Lecture notes for Family in sociology and medical anthropologyAYONELSON
The document discusses definitions of family from various sociologists and anthropologists. It provides definitions of family as a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. Family is also defined as a set of relationships between kins through blood, marriage or adoption. The document also discusses different classifications and types of families such as nuclear vs extended, patriarchal vs matriarchal, and classifications based on residence like patrilocal, matrilocal etc. It provides examples of different family structures from societies around the world.
MEMORY, PROCESS AND FORGETTING IN PSYCHOLOGYAYONELSON
- Encoding is the first stage of memory, where sensory information is processed and represented so it can be further processed by memory systems.
- Storage is the second stage, where received information is retained over time.
- Retrieval is the third stage, referring to locating stored information and bringing it to awareness when needed.
MEMORY, PROCESS AND FOGETTING IN PSYCHOLOGYAYONELSON
This document provides an outline for a lesson on memory. It defines memory and describes the three stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. It discusses the multi-store model of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The document also outlines four theories of forgetting: decay theory, motivated forgetting theory, interference theory, and cue-dependent forgetting theory. Finally, it briefly mentions the types of memory disorders.
LEARNING AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE IN PSYCHOLOGYAYONELSON
This document discusses learning and provides definitions and theories of learning. It begins by defining learning as the process of acquiring new knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to meet life's demands. Several psychologists' definitions of learning are then provided. The document also discusses the nature and characteristics of learning, including that it is a continuous, goal-directed process that involves change and experience. It notes different types of learning and provides details on Thorndike's trial and error theory of learning and his laws of learning, including the laws of readiness, exercise, and effect.
The document summarizes a workshop on developing research questions. It discusses understanding why academic research questions are important, strategies for formulating questions, and having participants begin developing their own questions. The workshop covers identifying topics of interest, considering what is known and unknown about a topic to reveal potential questions, using rhetorical modes to inspire questions, and focusing a question with supporting questions. The goal is for participants to leave with at least one open-ended research question to explore.
This document discusses research ethics and provides definitions and outlines of key topics in research ethics. It defines research ethics as the application of moral principles guiding research from inception to publication. It identifies the importance of ethics in protecting participants and building public support. The key principles of ethics discussed are consent, harm, privacy, and deception. Informed consent and minimizing risk of harm to participants are emphasized.
Culture refers to the shared ways of thinking, behaviors, and objects that together form a people's way of life. It includes both material and nonmaterial aspects that are learned and shared within a group. The main components of culture are values, norms, symbols, and language. Culture is transmitted between generations and helps shape human behavior and society. Cultural beliefs and practices can influence health by impacting behaviors and perceptions of wellness.
This document discusses the procurement and management of resources in primary healthcare. It covers:
1) The purpose of resource management is to ensure the right quality supplies are available at the right time and place at the lowest cost.
2) The supply chain logistics cycle involves selection, quantification, procurement, distribution, storage, use and management support systems.
3) Procurement methods include open tender, restricted tender, and competitive negotiation. Factors in supplier selection include quality, price, capacity and past performance.
4) Quantification is estimating supply needs over time based on consumption, morbidity, or service projections to inform procurement planning.
This document provides an overview of pharmacy laws and regulations, including definitions of pharmacy and a history of the profession globally and in Uganda. It begins with definitions tracing the term "pharmacy" back to ancient Greek and Latin roots. There is a discussion of ancient medical practices in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt, and Greece. It then covers developments in Europe and America, highlighting contributors like Paracelsus, Scheele, Pasteur, Koch, and Flemming. The document concludes with a brief history of pharmacy education and practice in Uganda from its beginnings in 1988 to the current recognized cadres.
Community diagnosis involves identifying and quantifying health problems in a community through data collection and analysis. It aims to understand factors influencing community health, highlight available resources, and identify local health priorities to improve health status. The process involves initiating a project, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, diagnosing the community's health status and determinants, and disseminating findings to stakeholders and the public. Challenges can include communities prioritizing other issues over real health problems and rushing conclusions without proper understanding. Regular assessment allows health programs to continuously adapt to community needs.
The document summarizes the key outcomes of the 1978 Alma-Ata Conference where 134 countries agreed on the goal of "Health for All" by 2000 through primary healthcare (PHC). The conference found that over half the world's population lacked adequate healthcare, with a large inequality between developed and developing countries. It established PHC as an approach focusing on disease prevention, health promotion, and community participation through intersectoral collaboration. The conference adopted 8 declarations, including defining PHC and its essential elements like immunization, maternal/child care, nutrition, water/sanitation, and community involvement.
1. Community health workers:
- Educate community on cholera prevention through hygiene promotion and sanitation.
- Identify cholera cases and refer to health facilities.
- Mobilize community for clean up campaigns and construction of latrines.
2. Government:
- Declare cholera outbreak and activate emergency response.
- Provide oral rehydration solution and antibiotics in health centers.
- Improve water sources and sanitation infrastructure.
- Enforce laws on proper waste disposal and food hygiene.
3. Health practitioners:
- Diagnose and treat cholera cases according to protocols.
- Educate patients and communities on prevention and early care seeking.
-
Lect 1.b THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF A HEALTH SYSTEM - notes pp.pptxAYONELSON
The document discusses the six building blocks of a health system according to the WHO framework: service delivery, health workforce, health information, medical products and technologies, health financing, and leadership/governance. These building blocks constitute the essential functions of a health system and must be strong to achieve goals of improved health, responsiveness, social/financial risk protection, and efficiency. Uganda employs this framework to strengthen its health system through programs focused on these building blocks at district and national levels.
This document discusses the basic control process in organizations. It involves 3 main steps: 1) establishment of standards, 2) measurement of performance against standards, and 3) correction of deviations from standards. Effective control systems focus on critical points, are integrated into existing processes, and have buy-in from employees. Controls make plans effective, ensure consistency, provide feedback, and aid decision making. To be effective, controls must be tailored to individual roles and plans, highlight exceptions, remain flexible, and achieve an appropriate cost-benefit balance.
The document discusses the functions of management, specifically planning. It defines planning as anticipating future trends and determining strategies and tactics to achieve organizational goals. Planning accounts for changing environments and helps performance. The steps in planning include establishing objectives and premises, determining alternative courses of action, evaluating alternatives, selecting a course, formulating derivative plans, implementing plans, and reevaluating. Planning can occur at strategic, intermediate, and operational levels. Potential limitations include lack of integration, understanding, contribution across levels, information, change resistance, and contingency planning.
The document discusses key concepts in organizing, including work specialization, span of control, chain of command, authority, delegation, and centralization vs decentralization. It notes that while specialization increases efficiency, jobs with only narrow tasks can lead to boredom. Modern organizations aim to enlarge jobs and use techniques like job rotation, enlargement, and enrichment. The optimal span of control depends on factors like task complexity and need for supervision. Authority flows down the organizational hierarchy through line, staff, and functional roles. Delegation involves assigning responsibility while maintaining accountability. Organizations must balance centralized control with decentralized decision-making based on factors like environmental unpredictability. Informal groups and the grapevine are important aspects of the informal organization within a
Topic 16-Pricing and Pricing Strategies in entrepreneurship.pptxAYONELSON
This document discusses pricing and pricing strategies. It begins by defining price and explaining that price is the most flexible element of the marketing mix. It then discusses factors that influence pricing decisions, including internal factors like costs, objectives, and products, as well as external factors like competition, demand, and the market. The document outlines various pricing approaches such as cost-based, value-based, competition-based, and demand-based pricing. It also discusses specific pricing strategies for new and existing products, such as market skimming, penetration pricing, bundle pricing, and promotional pricing.
This document defines community health nursing and describes its key characteristics and components. Community health nursing combines nursing and public health to promote population health. It focuses on communities, aggregates, and vulnerable populations. The community health nurse acts as a clinician, educator, advocate, manager, collaborator, leader, and researcher to address the health needs of the community through activities like health promotion, prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, evaluation, and research.
This document discusses research variables. It defines a variable as a characteristic that can take on different values. Variables are classified as independent or dependent. Independent variables influence the dependent variables. Examples of independent variables given are revision time and intelligence. Dependent variables are outcomes and examples include test scores. Other variable types discussed include extraneous, confounding, intervening, moderating, continuous, discrete, quantitative, qualitative, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio variables. Measurement scales are also explained.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system, including its divisions and functions. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, which process and store sensory and motor information. The peripheral nervous system transmits signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. It includes the somatic nervous system for voluntary muscle control and the autonomic nervous system for involuntary control of organs. The autonomic system has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions that generally oppose each other's effects on target organs.
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
2. What is learning?
• Answer to this question has been attempted by many psychologists
and educationists. Learning is not something that takes place within
the boundaries of a classroom; rather it takes place anywhere, anytime
and from anyone.
• Traditional Indian Literature has examples where people learnt from
trees, mountains, rivers, insects, etc. It means learning is something
which is possible anywhere. In order to understand the concept of
learning, let us begin with few definitions of learning which many
psychologists and educationists have proposed.
3. LEARNING CONT………….
Learning
• Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge,
attitudes and skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life
• This is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing
knowledge, behaviors, skills, values or preferences.
• One of the most important characteristics of human beings is their
capacity to learn. An individual starts learning immediately after
birth.
4. OTHER DEFINITIONS
• 1.Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in
behavior to meet environmental requirements.”
• 2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the
strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.”
• 3. Crow & crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge &
attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals
attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents
progressive changes in behavior. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain
goals
• 4. Hurlock (1942) : Learning is development that comes from exercise and
effort. Through learning, children acquire competence in using their
hereditary resources.
• 5. Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979): Learning may be defined as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior
experience.
5. NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEARNING
• Learning is a process and not a product: Learning is a lifelong process of
gaining and using the information presented to a person. It is not static. A
person never stops acquiring new information. It keeps a person’s mind
active and aware but also conscious of the world around them
• Learning is purposive or goal directed: when the aim and purpose of
learning is clear, an individual learns immediately. It is the purpose or goal,
which determines what, the learner sees in the learning situations and how
he acts. If there is no purpose or goal learning can hardly be seen.
• Learning generally involves some degree of permanence: To constitute
learning, the change should be permanent. Temporary changes may be only
reflective and fail to represent any learning.
6. NATURE…….
• Learning involves change. It is a reconstruction, combined thinking, skill,
information and appropriation in a single unity process. For example, when
a child learns to read they can retain this knowledge and behavior for the
rest of their lives.
• Learning is universal and continuous: Every creature till it lives, learns.
In human beings it is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or
culture. It is a continuous never-ending process which starts from birth and
continues till death
• Experience is Necessary for Learning: Some sort of experience is
necessary for learning. We can get the experience from direct observation or
from formal approaches to learning such as training, mentoring, coaching
and teaching.
7. NATURE…….
• Learning is comprehensive: The scope of learning is spread over each and
every dimension of life. It is a very comprehensive process which covers all
domains – Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor- of human behaviour.
• Learning is organizing experience: Learning involves all those experience
and training of an individual (right from birth) which help her/him to
produce changes in behaviour. It is not mere addition to knowledge or mere
acquisition of facts. It is the reorganization of experience which may also
include unlearning.
• Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust
herself/himself adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary
to the new situations.
8. TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning has been classified in many ways.
1. Informal, formal and non-formal learning:
• Informal learning is incidental. It takes place throughout life. It is not
planned.
• Formal learning is intentional and organized. It takes place in formal
educational institution.
2. Individual or Group learning: Learning is called either individual
or group learning depending upon the number of individuals involved in
the learning process.
9. III. Another classification involves the types of activity involved
a) Motor learning: - when learning involves primarily the use of
muscles it is called as motor learning. e.g.: learning to walk, to
operate a typewriter
b) Discrimination learning: - Learning which involves the act of
discrimination is called discrimination learning. e.g. infant
discriminates between mother and aunt, milk and water.
c) Verbal learning: - when learning involves the use of words it is
called as verbal learning.
d) Concept learning: - when learning involves the formation of
concept it is called as concept learning.
e) Sensory learning: - when learning is concerned with perception and
sense it is sensory learning.
10. THEORIES OF LEARNING
• There are three theories of learning
1. Try and error theory of learning
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Operant Conditioning
11. E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of
Learning:
• S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory with reinforcement
• Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American
psychologist who put forward the Trial and Error Theory of learning.
• According to Thorndike, all learning takes place because of formation
of bond or connection between stimulus and response. He further says
that learning takes place through a process of approximation and
correction.
• A person makes a number of trials, some responses do not give
satisfaction to the individual but he goes on making further trials until
he gets satisfactory responses.
• Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain
the process of learning. His most widely quoted experiment is with a
cat placed in a puzzle box.
12. Trial and Error Theory……….
• Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door,
which could be opened by manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was
placed outside the box.
• The cat being hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box.
However, the obstacle was the latch on the door. The cat made random
movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behaviour
biting at the box, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and
jumping etc. to come out to get the food.
• Now in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated
accidently and the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of
successive trials, the cat took shorter and shorter time, committed less
number of errors, and was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon
as it was put in the box and learnt the art of opening the door.
13. Trial and Error Theory……….
• Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the
cat was able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as Trial and Error
Learning.
• Analysis of the learning behaviour of the cat in the box shows that
besides trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation
and reinforcement are involved in the process of learning by Trial and
Error.
14. LAWS OF LEARNING
• Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain
laws of Learning. We shall discuss three fundamental Laws of
Learning in this section. These laws are:
• Law of readiness
• Law of effect
• Law of exercise/use
15. 1. Law of Readiness
• This law refers to the fact that learning takes place only when the learner
is prepared to learn. No amount of efforts can make the child learn if the
child is not ready to learn. In other words, if the child is ready to learn,
he/she learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if
he/she is not ready to learn.
2. Law of Exercise
This law explains the role of practice in learning. According to this law,
learning becomes efficient through practice or exercise. The dictum
‘Practice makes a man perfect’ goes very well with this law. This law is
further split into two parts; Law of use and Law of disuse
a) The law of use means that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened by its occurrence, its exercise or its use. In other words, the
use of any response strengthens it, and makes it more prompt, easy and
certain
16. • Regarding the law of disuse, it is said that when a modifiable
connection is not made between a stimulus and a response over a
length of time, the strength of that connection is decreased. This
means that any act that is not practiced for some time gradually
decays. Anything that is not used exercised or practiced for a certain
period tends to be forgotten or becomes weak in strength, efficiency
and promptness.
17. 3. Law of Effect
• This is most important of Thorndike’s laws, which state that when a
connection between stimulus and response is accompanied by satisfying
state, its strength is increased.
• On the other hand, when a connection is accompanied by an annoying state
of affairs, its strength is reduced or weakened.
• In other words, the responses that produce satisfaction or comfort for the
learner are strengthened and responses that produce annoyance or
discomfort for the learner are weakened. Thorndike revised this law in 1930
and according to this revision, he stated that reward strengthened the
response but punishment did not always weaken the response. Then he
placed more emphasis on the reward aspect than on the punishment aspect
of Law of Effect.
18. Other Laws……
Law of Primacy
• Things learned first are usually learned easily and remain without effort in
the mind of the student.
Law of Purpose
• With a clear or definite goal in mind, the student works towards a definite
purpose.
Law of intensity
• The more intense the material taught the more likely it will be retained. e.g. a
sharp vivid dramatic or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine
or boring experience.
Law of requirement
• It states that we must have something to obtain or do something i.e. it can be
ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something.
Law of freedom
• It states that things freely learned are best learned.
19. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF
LEARNING
• Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral
stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food)
that naturally produces a behavior.
• Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has
been acquired through experience.
• The theory of classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936), a Russian physiologist. Pavlov, while studying the
physiology of digestion; found that behavior can be classically
conditioned. He experimented on a dog
20. and found that food placed in the mouth of a hungry dog
automatically causes salivation. In this case, salivation is an
unlearned response, or an unconditioned response and the food is
an unconditioned stimulus (natural).
Later on, a bell was rung each time before the food was presented.
Pavlov now found that the dog started to salivate at the sound of the
bell and this was termed as a conditioned response. The bell is a
conditioned stimulus (artificial stimulus).
In later studies Pavlov noticed that if he did not provide food after the
bell was rung, the dog eventually stopped salivating called
‘extinction’ and demonstrated that reinforcement is essential both to
acquire and maintain respondent learning.
Pavlov also found that if the dog is given a prolonged rest
21. period during extinction, it will once again salivate when the bell is
rung. This phenomenon is called as spontaneous recovery.
Prior to conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about
salivation — making the bell a neutral stimulus. On the other hand,
food naturally brings about salivation, making the food an
unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response.
During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of
the food.
After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone brings about
salivation. The bell which was earlier considered as neutral stimulus
is now considered as conditional stimulus bringing about
conditioned response of salivation.
22. Summary
• Phase 1: Before Conditioning
• The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally
occurring stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in
response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally occurring
stimulus.
• During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
results in an unconditioned response (UCR).
• For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and automatically triggers
a salivation response (the UCR).
• At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect . Not
until this neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke
a response
23. Note
• The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally,
and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell
one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In
this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
• The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example,
the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.
24. Phase 2: During Conditioning
• During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the
previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned
stimulus. As a result of this pairing, an association between the
previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed. At this point, the
once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus
(CS). The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this
stimulus
• The conditioned stimulus is neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to
trigger a conditioned response.
25. Phase 3: After Conditioning
• Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS,
presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a
response even without the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting
response is known as the conditioned response (CR).
• The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously
neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be
feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.
26. Other terms
Acquisition: this is the (acquiring)learning of the behavior in response to an
unconditioned stimulus(UCS). E.g salivating in response to hearing a bell.
Extinction: This is when a conditioned response (CS) decreases and eventually fades if
the conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditional stimulus.(e.g a dog stops
salivating on hearing the bell when food is not brought.)
Spontaneous Recovery: This is when a conditional stimulus regains the ability to elicit
a conditional response
Stimulus Generalization: A response to a new stimulus (any sound) that resemblesthe
conditioned stimulus (sound of a bell ringing) resulting in the conditioned response
(salivating of the dog).
• Stimulus discrimination: Here the object learns to differentiate between the
conditioned stimulus (CS) to any other stimulus similar to it. (i.e the dog learns to
differentiate sound of a car hooting to sound heard from the bell so as to salivate).
• Aversive Conditioning: an unwanted behavior (e.g drinking alcohol) is paired with
painful or aversive stimulus ((e.g medication that causes nausea). Ideally, this pairing
creates an association between the unwanted behavior and the aversive stimulus and
alcohol drinking ceases.
27.
28. OPERANT CONDITIONING/
INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
• The theory of learning by operant conditioning was given by BF Skinner
(1904-1990).
• Basically Skinner revolted against the concept of classical conditioning. He
said that man is an active organism, and not a victim of his environment.
He does not wait for the stimulus; instead, he acts or operates on the
environment, so as to change it in some way. Thus, he called it as operant
behavior.
• According to Skinner, operant behavior is determined by the events or
consequences that follow the response. If the consequences are favorable,
the individual will repeat the same behavior. In this case, the consequences
are said to have provided positive reinforcement and cause repetition of
the behavior.
29. • Alternatively, if the consequences are unfavorable, they reduce the
chances of the same behavior from getting repeated. In such a case,
the consequences are said to have provided negative reinforcement
and reduce the chances of the behavior from recurring again.
• Thus, operant conditioning is called as type-R conditioning, to
emphasize the effect of the response on future behavior. In this way
Skinner said that learning is shaped and maintained by its
consequences.
• The Experiment
A hungry rat was placed in a box designed by Skinner, which was
known as the Skinner box or operant chamber. The chamber
contained a lever which would drop food pellets into it(chamber) if
pressed.
30. In the beginning the experimenter himself dropped the food pellets into
the box and later stopped. The rat, being hungry, began to explore the
box and pressed the lever accidentally. The food pellet was released into
the box and the rat ate it up.
After a while, it pressed the lever again and ate the food pellet, which
got released. After the third or fourth time, the rat began to press the
lever more rapidly.
Thus, the food is said to have provided positive reinforcement to the
rat and operant behavior got established, i.e. the rat continued to press
the lever, in order to obtain the food pellets. Based on the findings of his
experiments, he concluded that behavior is shaped and maintained by its
consequences. It is operated by the organism and maintained by its
results.
31.
32.
33. Principles
1. Behavior is determined by its consequences; for the individual the
consequence, or reinforcement, occurs immediately following behavior.
2. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is not part of the individual’s
natural repertoire can be learned through reward or punishment.
Elements used.
• The likelihood that a behavior will occur is increased by reinforcement and
decreased by punishment.
Reinforcement
• The process, by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated
Positive Reinforcement (reward): is the introduction of a pleasant
(positive) stimulus that increases the rate of behavior.
Negative Reinforcement (escape): is the removal of an aversive or
unpleasant behavior that increases the rate of behavior. eg turning off an
electric shock when a prisoner gives some useful information
34.
35. Punishment:
• Is the introduction of an aversive stimulus aimed at reducing the rate
of an unwanted behavior.
• Or A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior
will occur again.
• Qn: Define negative and positive punishment.
Extinction in operant conditioning:
• is the gradual disappearance of a learned behavior when
reinforcement is reduced.
36.
37. Factors Influencing Learning
• Learning is a process of bringing relatively permanent change in
behavior of the learner through experience or practice.
• The learning process is centered on three elements:
The learner, whose behavior is to be changed or modified.
The type of experience or training required for modification in the
learner’s behavior.
The men and material resources needed for providing desired
experiences and training
38. Factors associated ……………
Factors associated with the learner him/herself
• Learner’s physical health: Fever, sensory defects particularly of the
eyes or the ears, malnutrition, loss of sleep and fatigue are some of
the physical handicaps that hinder effective learning
• Learner‘s mental health: Experiments have shown that worries,
fears, persistent day dreams; feelings of loneliness and inferiority
affect learning. If the learner has no self-confidence, self-reliance or
self- respect due to the attitudes of teachers or others, it is very
difficult for him or her to learn well
• Basic potential of the learner:
39. Learner’s innate abilities and capacities for learning.
Learner’s general intelligence, knowledge, understanding skills, etc.
Learner’s basic interest, aptitudes and attitudes related to the learning of a
particular thing or area.
• The level of motivation: The stronger and clearer the motive in learning
anything, the greater is the effort and interest shown by the learner in
learning it. The result is greater and more permanent learning.
• Goals of life: The philosophy of immediate as well as ultimate goals of
one’s life affects the process and product of learning.
• Readiness and willpower: A learner’s readiness and willpower to learn is
a great deciding factor of his results in learning. If the learner has a will to
learn a thing, he finds a way for effective learning.
40. • Maturation: Maturation helps in the process of learning. We learn
things, when we are mature to learn them. Maturation and learning are
closely related to each other.
• Age: There are certain limitations that old people face in learning new
things. They are physically weak and their ability to learn is slow. They
have a poor recent memory and their reasoning speed decreases.
• Emotions: Tension or anxiety is a double-edged emotion. It has a
positive as well as a negative effect on learning. Some amount of stress
or anxiety is essential for learning. It provides the drive to learn.
• Sex: Although no sex is superior to the other, certain differences in
interests and aptitudes are found between the two sexes. Females like to
learn things that involve people, while men are more object- oriented
41. Factors Associated with type of Learning
Experience
• Nature of learning experience: Learning is influenced by the nature of
the subject matter and the learning experiences presented to a learner,
such as formal or informal, incidental or well planned, direct or indirect.
• Methodology of learning: Learning depends upon the methods,
techniques and approaches employed for the teaching and learning of
the selected contents. Some of these techniques are:
Linking the recent learning with those of the past.
Correlating learning in one area with that of another.
Utilization of maximum number of senses. Revision and practice.
Provision of proper feedback and reinforcement.
42. • Meaningfulness of material: The more meaningful the material, the
faster it is learned.
• Amount or length of material: Learning is influenced considerably
by the amount and length of the material to be learned. In general,
more the amount of material to be learned, more the time the person
will take to learn it.