This document provides an overview of learning and learning theories. It defines learning, discusses the domains, features, principles, and process of learning. It also summarizes four major learning theories: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. Behaviorism views learning as changes in observable behavior due to environmental influences and conditioning. Cognitivism sees learning as the processing of information in memory. Constructivism emphasizes learning through experience and knowledge construction. Humanism views learning as a personal act to fulfill one's potential.

1. Presentation
On
Learning
Based On
W.B.U.T Syllabus
Presented By
Arkabrata Bandyopadhyay

2. The Points To Be Understood As
Follows
• Definition of Learning. • Domains of Learning.
• Features of Learning. • Reinforcement.
• Process of Learning. • Types of
Reinforcement.
• Principles of Learning.
• Schedules of
• Theories of Learning. Reinforcement.
• Types of Learning. • Self Learning.
• Its Benefits

3. What is Learning?
• Learning is a process of Mental, Physical and Spiritual
development, and a lifelong process of transforming information
and experience into knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes.
Development is proof that learning has taken place.
• Learning is acquiring new or modifying
existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,
or preferences and may involve synthesizing different
types of information.
• (Input + Experience + Need) = (Thought process + Output).

4. features
• It is not dependent upon classes and courses – though these
can be very useful tools for learning
• It does not require a degree, certificate, or grade to prove its
worth – though clearly these have social value that most people
would be unwise to ignore
• It does require – in varying degrees, and in varying times and
circumstances – activities like practice, reflection, interaction
with the environment (in the broadest sense), and social
interaction. The latter, in particular, can be greatly facilitated
by the range of new technologies for communication and
collaboration now available to us.
• It does not always – probably not even most of the time –
happen consciously – though I think that those who strive for a
more conscious approach to learning throughout their lives –
whether at work or otherwise – tend to be more successful in
pretty much whatever way they define success.

5. General Process of Learning
Identifying an issue
(Consider school, personal, community and other issue)
Developing knowledge and Insight(critical thinking)
( Develop the issue based on history, values, beliefs, benefits etc.)
Developing a Vision(Creative Thinking)
( Develop a vision based on other alternatives, conditions, society, future)
Understanding
(Gathering, analyzing, & evaluating ideas from previous inputs & comes to a
stable point )
Planning
(Planning properly with your understanding, to get success)
Practice
(Give a power boost to your knowledge with practicing)
Reflecting & Evaluating
(This is the ultimate result that reflect what you has been learned)

6. Principles of Learning
................11 Basics principles of Learning ................
1. The learning environment is supportive and productive.
2. The learning environment promotes independence, interdependence
and self-motivation.
3. Students’ needs, backgrounds, perspectives and interests are
reflected in the learning program.
4. Students are challenged and supported to develop deep levels of
thinking and application.
5. Assessment & Practices an integral part of learning.
6. The principle of recency states that things most recently learned
are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is
removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more
difficult it is to remember.

7. Contd…..
7. The law of requirement states that "we must have something to
obtain or do something", it can be an ability, skill, instrument or
anything that may help us to learn or gain something.
8. Learning connects strongly with communities and practice beyond
the classroom.
9. The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are
best learned. Since learning is an active process, students must
have freedom: freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to
bear the results of action.
10. Reinforcement Principle helps a lot in learning effectively and
achieving improvement in performance. Reinforcement & reward
are always important aspects of the learning process . Rewarded
behaviour is learnt & tends to be repeated under similar
conditions in the future, where as non rewarded behaviour tends
not to be learned.
11. Lastly, there is principles of transfer of application of knowledge.
Learning is easier when one can see its relevance or applicability
to one’s own situation.

8. Edward Thorndike developed three
“prinCiples of learning"
• Readiness : Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and
emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no
reason for learning. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective,
and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress
than if they lack motivation. Basic needs of students must be satisfied
before they are ready or capable of learning.
• Exercise : The principle of exercise states that those things most often
repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It
has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer
when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that
the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to
improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback.
• Effect : The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the
student. It has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of
effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant
or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with
an unpleasant feeling. The student will strive to continue doing what
provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is
more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor
should recognize and commend improvement.

9. Theories of Learning
Theory #1-Behaviorism :
Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner.
There are three basic assumptions…….
First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior.
Second, the environment shapes behavior.
Third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events
must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means
of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are
central to explaining the learning process.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis,
curriculum based measurement, and direct
instruction have emerged from this model.

10. There are 2 types of possible conditioning in
Behaviorism Model
1) Classical conditioning-where the behavior becomes a reflex response
to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. A stimulus is presented
in order to get a response.
S R
2) Operant conditioning- where there is reinforcement of the behavior
by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was
developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The
word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the
environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement,
which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or
punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior
recurring.

11. Contd……
Theory #2-Cognitivism :
• The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication
in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist.
• Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1)
that the memory system is an active organized processor of
information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important
role in learning.
• Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-
based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works
to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes
of sorting and encoding information and events into short term
memory and long term memory are important to educators
working under the cognitive theory.
• The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is
the locus of control over the learning activity: the individual
learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that
behaviorists emphasize.

12. Contd……
Theory #3-Constructivism :
• The learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev
Vygotsky and John Dewey serve as the foundation of
constructivist learning theory.
• Constructivism views learning as a process in which, "learning
involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own
experiences.“
• Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active
learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless
of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free
exploration within a given framework or structure.
• Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed
learning, transformational learning, experiential learning,
situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.

13. Contd……
Theory #4- Humanism Model :
• Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach
that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill
one’s potential. Proposed by Abraham Maslow, Carl
Rogers, Malcolm Knowles.
• A central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt
(2001), is that people act with intentionality and values.
• This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant
conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result
of the application of consequences) and the cognitive
psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or
constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists
also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a
whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over
the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self,
motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.

14. Contd……
Theory #5-Informal & Post modern Theories :
• Informal theories of education breaks down the learning
process, learning authentically and with practicality.
• This theory states that new knowledge cannot be told to
students, rather student’s current knowledge must be
challenged. By challenging student’s current ideas, students
can adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual
theories or concepts.
• By using this method students gain the big idea taught and
later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of
the concept or theory taught.

15. Contd……
Theory #6- Neuroeducation Model :
• Neuroeducation is an emerging new learning theory.
• Neuroeducation analyzed the biological change in the
brain as new information is processed and looks at what
environmental, emotional, social situations are best in
order for the new information to be processed. It further
analyzes under what conditions the brain stores
information and links it to other neurons versus simply
determining that the information is non-essential to store
and hence reabsorbs the dendrite and dismisses the
information.

16. Types of Learning
Type #-1 : Simple non-associative learning :
• 1.1 Habituation=> In psychology, habituation is an example of
non-associative learning in which there is a progressive
diminution of behavioral response probability with
repetition stimulus. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but
if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces
subsequent responses. Habituation has been shown in
essentially every species of animal, including the large
protozoan.
• 1.2 Sensitization=> Sensitization is an example of non-
associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a
response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell
et al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the
repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur
if a person rubs his arm continuously.

17. Contd……
Type #-2 : Associative learning :
• Associative learning is the process by which an element is taught
through association with a separate, pre-occurring element. It is
also referred to as classical conditioning. Honeybees display
associative learning through the proboscis extension
reflex paradigm.
• 2.1 Classical conditioning=> classical conditioning involves
repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly
evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral
stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following
conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned
stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to
as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned
stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example
is Pavlov and his dogs.

18. Contd……
Type #-3 : Imprinting :
• Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any
kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age
or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of
the consequences of behavior.
Type #-4 : Observational learning :
• The learning process most characteristic of humans is imitation; one's
personal repetition of an observed behavior, such as a dance. Humans
can copy three types of information simultaneously: the
demonstrator's goals, actions, and environmental outcomes.
Type #-5 : Play :
• Play generally describes behavior which has no particular end in
itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the
future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides
humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Play involves
a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability
to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection.

19. Contd……
Type #-6 : Enculturation :
• Enculturation is the process by which a person learns the
requirements of their native culture by which he or she is
surrounded, and acquires values and behaviors that are
appropriate or necessary in that culture. The influences which
as part of this process limit, direct or shape the individual,
whether deliberately or not, include parents, other adults, and
peers.
Type #-7 : Episodic learning :
• Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result
of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being
bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so
named because events are recorded into episodic memory,
which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and
retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory.

20. Contd……
Type #-8 : Multimedia learning :
• Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and
visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001). This type of
learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).
Type #-9 : E-learning and augmented learning :
• Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer
to Internet-based networked computer-enhanced learning. A
specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile
learning(m-learning), which uses different mobile
telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.
• When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's
called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of
individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically
tailored to the learner's natural environment. Augmented digital
content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice).

21. Contd……
Type #-10 : Rote learning :
• Rote learning is a technique which avoids understanding the
inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being
learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that
it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or
heard. The major practice involved in rote learning techniques
is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able
to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more it is
repeated.
Type #-11 : Meaningful learning :
• Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned
knowledge (for example, a fact) is fully understood by the
individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact
relates to other stored facts in the brain. For understanding
this concept, it is good to contrast meaningful learning with the
less complex rote learning.

22. Contd……
Type #-11 : Informal learning :
• Informal learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day
situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while
walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention
to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at
table with parents, play, exploring, etc.
Type #- 12 : Formal learning :
• Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student
relationship, such as in a school system.
Type #-13 : Nonformal learning :
• Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal
learning system. For example: learning by coming together with
people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs
or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

23. Contd……
Type #-11 : Tangential learning :
• Tangential learning is the process by which people will self-educate
if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy.
For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people
may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after
watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some
people may be inspired to read the original work.
Types #-12 : Dialogic learning :
• Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

24. Domains of learning
Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning:
• Cognitive – To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve,
etc.
• Psychomotor – To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a
bike, etc.
• Affective – To like something or someone, love, appreciate,
fear, hate, worship, etc.
These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning
to play chess, the person will have to learn the rules of the
game (cognitive domain); but he also has to learn how to set up
the chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to properly
hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor).

25. Reinforcement, an essential part of
learning
• Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior
analysis for the process of increasing the rate or probability of
a behavior in the form of a "response" by the delivery or
emergence of a stimulus immediately or shortly after
performing the behavior. reinforcement is defined by the effect
that it has on behavior - it increases the behavior.
• A reinforcement is the stimulus, event, or situation that is
presented or otherwise emerges when the response behavior is
performed.
• Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special
education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental
analysis of behavior.

26. Types of Reinforcement
• 1)Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a reward or other desirable consequence
that follows behavior. A compliment from the boss after
completing a difficult job and a salary increase following a
period of high performance are examples of positive
reinforcement.
• 2)Negative reinforcement/Avoidance
It is another means of increasing the frequency of desirable
behavior. Rather than receiving a reward following a desirable
behavior, the person is given the opportunity to avoid an
unpleasant consequence. For example, an employee’s boss may
habitually criticize individuals who dress casually. To avoid
criticism, the employee may formally dress to suit the
supervisor’s taste. The employee is engaging in desirable
behavior to avoid an unpleasant or aversive, consequence.

27. Contd……
• 3)Punishment
Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors
being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable
behavioral consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the
unwanted behavior. Punishment is one of the more commonly used
reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest
that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement
cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially
negative side effects of punishment. An example of punishment might
be demoting an employee who does not meet performance goals or
suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules.
• 4)Extinction
Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce
unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued
behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the
probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is
likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may
alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive
reinforcer is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs.

28. Schedules of Reinforcement
• In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an
important component of the learning process. When and how
often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on
the strength and rate of the response.
In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it
occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all.
Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might
be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of
reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and
increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
. There are 2 types of Reinforcement Schedules.
1. Continuous Reinforcement & 2. Partial Reinforcement.
There are also 4 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement.
2.1. Fixed-ratio, 2.2. Variable-ratio, 2.3. Fixed-interval, 2.4.
Variable-interval schedule.

29. Self-Learning
• Self-learning is taking in information, processing it, and
retaining it without the need for another individual to be
teaching it in order for the understanding to occur.
• Simply stated, self-teaching (or self-learning) requires the
ability for a student to work independently. Self-taught
students are motivated by the sense of a job well done. They
are self-motivated because they have the confidence that if
they don’t know an answer to a question, they know how to use
the resources available to find out the answer.
• Self-Learning, a term which is interchangeable with self-
teaching,
is a gift you give to your children.
It is the gift that keeps on giving and even gives back to you!

30. Top 20 Benefits of Self-Learning
1. Student becomes an independent thinker.
2. Student learns to accept responsibility.
3. Student gains the freedom to learn without restrictions.
4. Student earns accountability.
5. Intrinsic rewards become the focus, that good feeling inside that comes
from a job well done.
6. Student tests well because he is used to tackling problems on his own,
which equals confidence.
7. Students retain more naturally when they do the work versus parents spoon
feeding the information into them.
8. Students learn where to go when help is needed. There is no need to worry
about gaps in their education because if they need to know something down
the road, they will just look it up on their own.
9. Student has the courage to delve into an area of interest to study it
without having to wait for a teacher to teach it.
10. Students become more than prepared for college study, which will require
motivation and planning ahead.

31. Contd….
• 11. Self-learning gives the opportunity to develop a good work ethic.
12. Self-learning allows the learner to go as deeply into a subject and interact
with the subject matter as deeply as he would like to go.
13. Self-learning enables the learner to limit the number of interests
undertaken so as not to be spread too thinly.
14. Self-learning allows the family to function as a family without emulating an
institution at home.
15. Self-learning eliminates all excuses for not reaching one's potential. It will
never be anyone else's fault if the student doesn't learn.
16. Self-learning is more fun than being taught at.
17. Self-learning means that mom can read great books rather than teacher's
manuals and text books.
18. Self-learning trains one to go to the source for information which reduces
the possibility of deception.

32. Contd…
• 19. Self-learning is the wave of the future now that so much
information is available at our fingertips.
20. Self-learning means that babies and toddlers get more attention
from mom because she is not busy playing teacher.

33. THANK YOU