Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are several theories and laws of learning. Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. Pavlov's classical conditioning theory explains how behaviors can become reflexive through repeated pairing with stimuli. Skinner's operant conditioning theory proposes that behaviors are shaped by their consequences - behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency.

1. LEARNING

2. Long Essay (10 Marks)
• Define learning. Briefly explain the theories of learning and
its implication in education and nursing
• Define learning. Describe the educational implication of
learning by conditioning in nursing
• Define learning. Explain Pavlov classical conditioning theory
of learning.
• Elaborate on factors influencing learning

3. Short Essays (5 Marks)
• Nature of learning
• Explain about transfer of learning
• Steps involved in problem solving
• Factors affecting learning
• Theory of classical conditioning (or) Ivan Pavlov theory
• Theory of operant conditioning (or) B F Skinner theory
• Explain theory of trial and error (or) Thorndike theory
• Theory of insight learning (or) insightful learning

4. Short answer (2 Marks)
• Learning
• Learning by insight (or)
insightful learning
• Transfer of learning
• Problem solving
• Types of reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Reward & Punishment
• Incentives
• Steps of problem solving

5. • Transfer of learning
• Law of exercise
• Law of use
• Law of disuse
• Revised law of exercise
• Law of multiple response
or Varied response
• Law of attitude
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
• Positive transfer
Short answer (2 Marks)

6. • Stimulus generalization
• Stimulus discrimination
• Verbal learning
• Motor learning
• Concept learning
• Problem solving learning
• Serial learning
• Paired association learning
• Negative transfer
Short answer (2 Marks)

8. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Define Learning
• List the types of learning
• Discuss the factor influencing learning
• Explain the laws and theories of learning
• Understand the habit formation

9. Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and experience”.
This definition has three important elements.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or
experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are
not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent,
and it must last a fairly long time.

10. DEFINITION
• Henry .P. Smith
“Learning is the acquisition of new behavior (or)
strengthening (or) weakening of old behavior as a
result of experience”.
• Gardner Murphy
“The term learning covers every modification
in behavior to meet environmental requirements”

11. NATURE OF LEARNING

12. Nature of learning
• Process and not a product.
• It is never ending process that extends from womb
to the tomb.
• involves all experience and training to produce
desirable changes.
• Learning leads to changes in behavior
• Learning is universal and continuous
• Learning is too wide (cognitive, conative and
affective)
• Maturations increases learning.

13. Nature of learning
• One has an equal chance to drift to the negative side of
human personality.
• Unlearning is also a learning process.
• Learning prepares an individual for any adjustment (or)
adaptation.
• Learning is purposeful and goal oriented activity.

14. Types of learning
• Motor learning
• Verbal learning
• Concept Learning
• Discrimination Learning
• Problem solving
• Attitude learning

15. Types of learning
• Verbal learning: Acquisition of verbal behaviour:
Example: Rote learning (or) rote memorization.
Learning of sign, pictures, symbols, words, figures,
sounds and voices are essential instrument for verbal
learning.
• Motor learning: Learning of motor skills. Example:
swimming, riding of horse, driving a car playing a piano
etc.

16. Types of learning
• Concept learning:
 It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental
processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn
different concepts from childhood.
 For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we
learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal.
 All of our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive,
is influenced by our concepts.

17. Types of learning
• Problem solving learning:
Higher form of learning.
This learning requires abilities like reasoning,
observation, discriminations, generalization
and ability to infer and draw conclusions.
Learning is based on previous experience,
training and knowledge etc.

18. Types of learning
SERIAL LEARNING
• In this learner is presented with learning material that
exhibits some sequential or serial order.
• E.g: alphabet, multiplication tables etc..
PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING
Learning tasks are presented in such a way that they may be
learnt by their associations.
e. g. : name of this hospital

19. Types of learning
• Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an
appropriate response to these stimuli is called
discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different
vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.

20. Types of learning
• Attitude learning:
 Attitude is a predisposition which determines and
directs our behavior.
 We develop different attitudes from our childhood
about the people, objects and everything we know.
 Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession,
patients, etc.

21. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

22. Learner’s
physical and
mental
health Level of
aspiration
and
achievement
motivation
Readiness
and will
power
Basic
potentials’ of
the learner
Goals of
life
Factors Promoting Effective Learning

23. Factors associated with the type of learning
experiences
Nature of
learning
experience
Environmental
factors
Physiological
factors
Nervous
system

24. Promoting effective learning
• Level of aspiration and achievement motivation
A person who maintains the reasonable level of aspiration and
achievement motivation result in effective learning.
• Goals of life
Goals and philosophy of one’s life influence on learning process,
positive goals and philosophy result in positive learning.
Readiness and will power: Learner readiness and power to
learn will result in effective and purposeful learning.

25. Factors associated with the type of learning
experiences
• Nature of learning experience: Learning is influenced by
nature of subject matter.
• Environmental factors: Light, noise, air pollutions, very low
temperature, improper ventilation may affect the learning
process.
• Physiological factors: Defective sensory organs and physical
health condition alter the learning process.
• Nervous system: Defective nervous system result in defective
learning process.

26. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
• Physical & mental health
• Working conditions
• Time of learning
• Capacity of the learner
• Readiness and will power

27. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
• Nutrition
• Attention
• Environmental factors
• Age and maturity
• The level of aspiration and achievement, motivation
• Rewards and punishment
• Subject matter

29. Theories of learning
• Thorndike’s theory of trial and errors learning
• Connectionist (or) behaviorist theories:-It interprets the
learning in terms of connection (or) associations between
stimulus and response.
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
• Insightful learning

31. Trial and Error Learning Theory
• This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL
Thorndike (1874-1949).
• He argues that learning takes place through trial and error
method.
• According to him learning is a gradual process where the
individual will make many attempts to learn.
• The essence of this theory is-as the trials increase, the errors
decrease.

32. • According to this theory when an individual is placed in a new
situation, he makes a number of random movements.
• In the first attempt their number is very large, in the second
attempt the number of errors diminishes and the range of
activity becomes narrower.
Trial and Error Learning Theory

33. • In one of the experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box
and the door was closed which could be opened by pressing a
Latch.
• A fish was placed outside the box in a plate.
• The cat could see the fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in
the morning and ten in each afternoon for five days.
• The cat was fed at the end of each experimental period and
then was given nothing more to eat until after the next session.
Trial and Error Learning Theory

36. • If, succeeded in opening the door in any trial by chance, he
went to eat food (fish).
• A complete record was made of the cat’s behavior during
each trial
• In the beginning the cat made a number of random
movements like biting, clawing, dashing, etc.
• Gradually in subsequent trials the cat reduced the incorrect
responses (errors), as it was in a position to manipulate the
latch as soon as it was put in the box.
Trial and Error Learning Theory

37. • As the trials increased the solution to open the
door (pressing the latch) was discovered and at
the end, the cat could open the door with zero
error. The time taken in each trial was eventually
reduced
Trial and Error Learning Theory

47. LAWS OF LEARNING

48. PRIMARY
LAWS
• Law of readiness
• The law of effect
• The law of
exercise
Secondary
laws
• Law of multiple
response
• Law of set or
attitude
• Law of associative
shifting
• Law of analogy
• Law of prepotency
elements
LAWS OF LEARNING

49. Laws of Learning
1. Law of readiness:
• Implies the degree of preparedness and eagerness
to learn
• Individual learn best when they are ready to learn
and they will not learn much if they see no reason
for learning
• This condition of readiness has two effects—
satisfaction and annoyance. When the animal is
ready to act- if permitted- it gives pleasure. If it is
not permitted, it feels annoyed.

51. LAW OF EXERCISE
• This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency
refers to number of repetitions of learning.
• Things that are most often repeated are best
remembered
• According to this law, drill or practice helps in increasing
efficiency and durability of learning.
• So also if the response is not repeated, its bond with
stimulus gets weakened.
• This is also according to the statement that ‘practice
makes man perfect’.

53. LAW OF EFFECT
• This law states that when a connection is accomplished by
satisfying effect- its strength is increased. By this, Thorndike
meant that the probability of its occurrence is greater.
• In his experiment if the hungry cat succeeded in opening the
door, would get its favourable dish to eat.
• This had a positive effect on its response. Rewards always
strengthen connections between stimuli and responses, and
on the other hand, punishment weakens connections.

55. SECONDARY LAWS

57. LAW OF MULTIPLE RESEPONSE
This law implies that when an individual is
confronted with a new situation he responds in
a variety of ways trying first one response and
then another before arriving at the correct one

59. LAW OF ATTITUDE
Learning is guided by total attitude or ‘set’ of the
organism. The learner performs the task properly if he
has developed a healthy attitude towards the task
Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any
learning

61. LAW OF ASSOCIATIVE SHIFTING
• This law states that “any response may be elicited
from the learner, of which he is capable, in
association with any situation to which he is
sensitive”.

63. Law of prepotency of elements
• This law states that the learner is able to react
in a selected way, only to the salient elements
of the problem and not for other unimportant
elements

64. Law of response by analogy
• It means comparing a new situation to
the previously learned one and thus
giving a response by analogy

66. • Thorndike formulated these laws on the basis of his
experiments. According to the law of readiness, the cat was
ready to learn, because it was hungry. This hunger motivated
the cat to learn to open the door.
• According to the second law, the cat was repeatedly given
trials and exercise which strengthened its learning. Finally on
each trial the cat was given reinforcement in the form of fish.
• This encouraged the cat to continue its effort to learn to open
the door. The secondary laws given by him support these
findings. These laws are highly relevant to the field of
education. The teachers can make use of these laws in order to
make their teaching more effective.

73. • A small child learns some skill through this method only
such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc
• In this theory more emphasis has been laid on motivation

74. Learning by Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning

77. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• The association between environmental stimuli
and the organism’s response
• A neutral stimulus brings about a response by
association with a stimulus that already brings
about a similar response

79. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – elicits a
response automatically
e. g – Food
• Unconditioned Response – the reflexive
response to a stimulus – automatically
produced
e.g - salivation

80. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Learning occurs when pair neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus
• Neutral: does not yet produce
automatic response

81. • Conditioned stimulus(CS): was neutral,
now elicits conditioned response after
being paired with an unconditioned
stimulus
• Conditioned response (CR): A response
elicited by the conditioned stimulus occurs
after the CS is associated with the UCS is
usually similar to the CS

83. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the
quantity of saliva produced in response to food
(meat power). At the beginning of his experiment
Pavlov noted that no saliva flowed when he rang
the bell. He then trained the dog by sounding the
bell, and shortly afterwards presenting food.

84. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few
times, he tested the effects of the training by measuring
the amount of saliva that flowed when he rang the bell and did
not present food. He found that some saliva was produced in
response to the sound of the bell alone. He then resumed the
training-paired presentation of bell and food a few times and
then tested again with the bell alone.

85. • As the training continued, the amount of saliva on
tests with the bell alone increased. Thus, after
training the dog’s mouth watered-salivated-
whenever the bell was sounded. This is what was
learned; it is the conditioned response.

88. • Classical conditioning is a form of learning in
which people learns to associate two stimuli
that occur in sequence
• Classical conditioning occurs when a person
forms a mental association between two
stimuli, so that encountering one stimulus
means the person thinks of the other

90. Extinction
• Weakening of conditioned response through the
removal of reinforcement.
• Extinction means CESSATION OF A RESPONSE.
• The strength of the CS gradually decreases when it
is presented alone and not followed by UCS for a
number of trails. This process is called ‘extinction’.
• In this experiment when only bell is presented
without food for a number of trials, the dog stopped
salivation gradually.

91. Spontaneous recovery
• Extinction does not mean, however, that the dog is
simply unlearned or forgotten the association
between the bell and the food
• when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food)
for some trials, the CR (salivation) recovered. This is
known as ‘spontaneous recovery’.
• The reappearance of an extinguished response after
some time has passed is called spontaneous recovery

92. Stimulus generalization
A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is
similar to original one is called stimulus
generalization, the greater the similarity, the
more the generalization. In this experiment, the
dog started salivating even for the sound of a
buzzer which was similar to bell

93. Stimulus generalization

94. Stimulus discrimination
• When there is much difference between two stimuli, the
animal can discriminate between the two. For example, if the
dog is conditioned to salivate at the signal of red light, it will
not salivate when green light is presented.
• The opposite of generalization is discrimination, in which an
individual learns to produce a conditioned response to one
stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar.

95. Stimulus discrimination

96. • In our day-to- day’s life we come across many instances of
such learning. For example, a small child who does not
know, touches a burning candle, it gives him a painful
experience and withdraws his hand. Later this experience
will make him withdraw from burning objects and avoid
them all together.
• Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very
effectively in the treatment of abnormal behaviours such as
phobias, alcoholism, enuresis, etc. These are called
behaviour modification techniques

98. OPERANT CONDITIONING
• This method of conditioning was developed by
an American psychologist BF Skinner.
• This theory is also known as ‘Instrumental
conditioning’, because the animals use certain
operations or actions as instruments to find
solution.

100. DEFINITION
Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning
process where a response is made more probable
or more frequent by reinforcement
The process by which a response becomes more or
less likely to occur depending on its consequences

101. • Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry
rat in a box called after his name ‘Skinner box’. This box was
containing a lever and a food tray in a corner of the box. It was
so arranged, that the animal was free to move inside the box,
but the pressing of the lever would get the animal a pellet of
food in the tray as reinforcement.
OPERANT CONDITIONING

103. Contd……
Arrangement was also made to record the number
of pressings of the lever by a mechanical device. It
was found in the beginning that the rat pressed
the lever occasionally and used to get food as
reinforcement for each pressing.

104. Contd….
• Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of
lever would give some food, it repeated the
responses very rapidly. This rapid increase in
pressing the lever is the indication of the
animal conditioned to get food.

106. Components of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
Positive
reinforcers
Negative
reinforcers
Punishment
Positive
punishment
Negative
punishment
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behavior it follows

108. • Learning by perceiving the relationship
in the scene and understanding the
situation is insightful learning.
• This theory was developed on 1920s by a
psychologist known as Wolf gang Kohler, who
belonged to Gestalt school of psychology
• Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the
solution, a flash of understanding, without any
process of trial and error.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING

109. • This theory is also called Gestalt Theory of
Learning.
• The word Gestalt in German language means
‘whole’, ‘total pattern’ or ‘configuration’.
• This school believes that the whole is more
important than the parts. So learning also takes
place as a whole’.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING

110. • Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on
chimpanzee- called Sultan. In the experiment, Sultan was put
in a cage and a banana was placed at some distance outside
the cage. Then the chimpanzee was given two sticks, so
constructed that one stick could be fitted into another and
make the stick longer.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING
EXPERIMENT

112. The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get
the banana. Then he took one of the sticks and tried to
pull the banana nearer, then tried with other stick, but
failed to reach it. By this effort, the chimpanzee became
tired and left the attempts to reach banana and started
playing with sticks.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING
EXPERIMENT (CONTD..)

113. While playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the
other and the stick became lengthier. Immediately Sultan
became elated and pulled the banana with this long stick
and ate it. This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach food with
longer stick was called as ‘Insight’, by Kohler.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING
EXPERIMENT (CONTD..)

114. He concluded that the occurrence of insight to find
solution to a problem is possible by perception of the
whole situation
Kohler conducted many experiments on this line of
learning to prove that, just trial and error method is not
enough to find solution for many complex problems.
INSIGHTFUL LEARNING

115. Criterion or Essentials of Learning by Insight
1. Comprehension as a whole:
Learning by insight requires full comprehension of the situation as a
whole.
2. Clear goal:
The goal must be quite clear to begin with.
3. Power of generalisation:
The learner must possess power of generalisation along with those of
differentiation.
4. Suddenness of solution:
Suddenness of the solution is the hall mark of learning by insight i.e.,
the solution flashes suddenly to the learner. No lengthy reasoning is
involved.

116. Criterion or Essentials of Learning by Insight
5. New forms of objects:
As a result of insight into the problem or situation objects appear
in new forms and patterns.
6. Transfer:
Transfer of learning occurs as a result of insight. The principles
learnt in one situation are applied to the other situation.
7. Change in behaviour:
Insight changes our behaviour to the extent which we have learnt
through insight.

117. TRANSFER OF
LEARNING

119. Meaning
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of
past learning upon present acquisition.
Transfer of learning or training occurs when
learning of one set of material influences the
learning of another set of material later.

121. DEFINITION
“ The carry over of habit of thinking, feeling or
working of knowledge or of skills from one
learning area to another is usually referred to as
transfer of learning”
- CROW & CROW
“ Transfer of learning is generalization, for it is
extension of idea to a new field:
- PETERSON

122. Transfer of learning
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the
partial or total application or carryover of
knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one
situation to another situation”.
Example: driving a new car.
The individual has to adapt his/her old habits and
learn new ones.

123. Types of Transfer of Learning
POSITIVE TRANSFER
NEGATIVE TRANSFER
NEUTRAL TRANSFER

124. Types of Transfer of Learning
1. Positive transfer:
When learning in one situation facilitates learning
in another situation, it is known as positive
transfer.
For example, skills in playing violin facilitate
learning to play piano. Knowledge of mathematics
facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving
a scooter facilitates driving a motorbike.

125. Types of Transfer of Learning
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the learning of
another task harder- it is known as negative
transfer.
• For example, speaking Telugu hindering the
learning of Malayalam.
• Left hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of
right hand drive.

126. Types of Transfer of Learning
3. Neutral transfer:
• When learning of one activity neither
facilitates nor hinders the learning of
another task.
• It is also called as zero transfer.
• For example, knowledge of history in no
way affects learning of driving a car or a
scooter.

127. THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Theory of identical
elements
2. Theory of
generalization of
experience

128. 1. Theory of identical elements
• This theory has been developed by E.L.Thorndike.
According to him most of the transfer occurs from one
situation to another in which there are most similar or
identical elements.
• The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of
elements increases. For example, learning to ride a
two wheelar is easy after learning to ride a bicycle.
Here, the transfer is very fast because of identical
elements in both vehicles.

129. 2. Theory of generalization of experience
• This theory was developed by Charles Judd.
• Theory of generalization assumes that what is learned in task ‘A’
transfers to task ‘B’ because in studying ‘A’, the learner develops
a general principle which applies in part or completely in both
‘A’ and ‘B’.
• Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us
to the extent to which they can be generalized and applied to
other situations.
• Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding what is
common to many situations. The ability of individuals to
generalize knowledge varies with the degree of their
intelligence.

132. HABIT FORMATION

133. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Define habit
• Define habit formation
• Types of habit
• Describe Process of habit formation
• Discuss Measures for effective habit formation

135. HABIT FORMATION
• The process of changing a habit into a new behaviour is
called habit formation
• H. F is the process by which new behaviours become
automatic.
• Habit is simple form of learning, a change of behavior with
experience
• It is defined as “ an automatic response to a specific
situation, acquired normally as a result of repetition of
learning.

136. TYPES OF HABITS
• MOTOR HABITS
• INTELLECTUAL HABITS
• HABITS OF CHARACTER

137. MOTOR HABITS
• These habits refer to muscular activities of an individual
• These are the habits related to our physical actions such as
standing……

138. INTELLECTUAL HABITS
• These are related to psychological process requiring
intellectual abilities such as good observation,
accurate perception, logical thinking, using of
reasoning ability before taking decisions and testing
conclusions..

139. HABITS OF CHARACTER
• These habits will have essence of feelings and
emotions
• These are also called emotional habits
• We express some of our character in the form of
habits
• E.g: helping people, trusting others, being honest….

140. PROCESS OF HABIT FORMATION
• CUE
• CRAVINGS
• RESPONSE
• REWARD

141. • CUE: the first step is the trigger or cue telling your brain to
go into automatic mode. The cue triggers brain to initiate a
behavior. It is a bit of information that predicts a reward.
• Cravings: are the motivational force behind every habit.
Without some level of motivation or desire, without
craving a change, individual have no reason to act.
PROCESS OF HABIT FORMATION

142. • Response : is the actual habit we perform, which can take
the form of a thought or an action. Whether a response
occurs depends on how motivated we are and how much
friction is associated with the behavior.
• REWARD: Are the end goal of every habit.
We chase rewards because they satisfy us and teach us.
Reward is associated with continuing the same behavior
which leads to habit formation.
PROCESS OF HABIT FORMATION

143. Measures for effective habit formation
• Make a good start
• Keep regular practice
• Choose favourable environment
• Continue till goal is acheieved

145. APTITUDE
Some people can paint beautifully, but cannot sing, Some are
good at oral communication, but find it difficult to handle any
mechanical device. This basic differences bring satisfaction to
the individual, The reason for the differences is mainly due to
aptitude.

146. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Define aptitude
• Enlist the characteristics
• Enumerate the types
• Discuss the measurement
• Explain the uses of aptitude tests

147. • Aptitude means quickness in learning and
understanding. It may be an natural talent or an
acquired ability.
• It is the special aptness or fitness for a special ability,
such as mechanical, musical, artistic, Scholastic or
Religious.

148. • The word aptitude is derived from the word “aptos” which
means ‘fitted for’.
Very often words such as ‘potentiality’, ‘capacity’, ‘talent’ etc. are
used synonymously with aptitude
In the Dictionary of Education, aptitude is defined as a
“pronounced innate capacity for or ability in a given line of
endeavour such as a particular art, school subject or vocation
MEANING OF APTITUDE

149. DEFINITION
• “Aptitude refers to those qualities characterizing a person’s way of
behaviour, which serve to indicate how well he can learn to meet and
solve a certain specified kinds of problem”.(Bingham-1937).
• “It is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s
capacity to acquire (with training) some specific knowledge, skill, or
set of organised responses”. such as the ability to speak a language,
to become a musician, to do mechanical work.(Freeman-1971).

150. TYPES OF APTITUDE
1. MECHANICAL APTITUDE
2. CLERICAL APTITUE
3. ARTISTIC APTITUDE
4. PROFESSIONALAPTITUDE
5.SCHOLSATIC APTITUDE

151. Uses of Aptitude Tests
• Career counseling: Aptitude tests are used mostly by career
counselors to help students make a proper choice of courses
or occupation. In such cases, the counselor administers
aptitude test batteries that are a combination of tests
measuring a wide variety of abilities.
• Clinical service: Information obtained from aptitude tests can
also be used for making a clinical decision regarding an
underachieving, maladjusted student whether he has
motivational or other conduct problem or he simply lacks the
ability to learn.