This document is a student assignment on MALT, GALT and BALT submitted by Hina Zamir. It discusses the three topics in three paragraphs. MALT is mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue found throughout the body. GALT refers to gut-associated lymphoid tissue, including the tonsils, adenoid, appendix and Peyer's patches, which protect the gastrointestinal tract. BALT is bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue located in the conducting airways.
T-Cell Activation
• Concept of immune response
• T cell-mediated immune response
• B cell-mediated immune response
I. Concept of immune response
• A collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign substances in an individual mediated by the cells and molecules in the immune system.
II. T cell-mediated immune response
• Cell-mediated immunity is the arm of the adaptive immune response whose role is to combat infection of intracellular pathogens, such as intracellular bacteria (mycobacteria, listeria monocytogens), viruses, protozoa, etc.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
T-Cell Activation
• Concept of immune response
• T cell-mediated immune response
• B cell-mediated immune response
I. Concept of immune response
• A collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign substances in an individual mediated by the cells and molecules in the immune system.
II. T cell-mediated immune response
• Cell-mediated immunity is the arm of the adaptive immune response whose role is to combat infection of intracellular pathogens, such as intracellular bacteria (mycobacteria, listeria monocytogens), viruses, protozoa, etc.
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by antibodies, which are secreted by B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the antibodies into the blood and lymph
B Cell Receptor & Antibody Production-Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
Antibody production is the function of B lymphocytes. These slides describe the structure of B cell receptor and steps involved in antibody production by B lymphocytes
dendritic cells are part of innate immune system, antigen presenting cells in skin, activation of t cells and inducing and maintaining immune tolerance, 4 types- langerhans cells, dermal dendritic cells, merkel cells, melanocytes
B Cell Receptor & Antibody Production-Dr C R MeeraMeera C R
Antibody production is the function of B lymphocytes. These slides describe the structure of B cell receptor and steps involved in antibody production by B lymphocytes
dendritic cells are part of innate immune system, antigen presenting cells in skin, activation of t cells and inducing and maintaining immune tolerance, 4 types- langerhans cells, dermal dendritic cells, merkel cells, melanocytes
Immune System Organs. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system include the thymus and bone marrow, as well as secondary lymphatic tissues including spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin, and liver.
Immune System Organs. The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system include the thymus and bone marrow, as well as secondary lymphatic tissues including spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin, and liver.
The lymphatic system consists of organs, ducts, and nodes. It transports a watery clear fluid called LYMPH distributes immune cells and other factors throughout the body.
What are lymphoid nodules and where are they located What functions.pdfamritashinfosalys
What are lymphoid nodules and where are they located? What functions are served by these? (1
paragraph)
Solution
These are small localised ovoid or kidney shaped organs containing collection of lymphoid
tissue. They are generally located in the loose connective tissue under wet epithelial membranes
eg-digestive system, respiratory system etc. They are located in the walls of alimentary canal
(tonsils, appendix and caecum, Peyer\'s patches), genitourinary passages, respiratory tract and
also in other parts of the body. Peyer\'s patches are permanently localized lymphoid tissue in the
sub mucosa of ileum. To defend nasal and oral cavities in the body lymphatic nodules are
grouped together forming tonsils which are of three pairs viz. Palatine, Lingual and Pharyngeal.
They help in the proper functioning of the immune system. They act as a filter for foreign
particles and cancer cells. They guard the body and respond to entry of infectious organisms and
toxins. Lymphoid nodules are the sites of proliferation/activation of lymphocytes (B cells). It
occurs in the germinal centre..
This slide is about secondary lymphoid organs. Majorly focusing on lymphnode, spleen and splenic circulation, tonsils, mucosal associated lymphoid tissue, appendix and their medical applications.
This Power Point provides quality information about the cells and organs of the human immune system and how these cell and organs work and coordinate with other organ-system in the body.
Human digestive system structure and function
overview
Major organs
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
small intestine
large intestine
Acessory organs:
Liver
gall bladder
Pancreas.
Human digestive system
Major organs
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
small intestine
large intestine.
Acessory organs:
Liver
Gall bladder
Pancreas.
MAJOR ORGANSThe Mouth
pH: 7
The first part of the digestive system
the entry point of food.
Structures in the mouth that aids digestion
Teeth – cut, tear, crush and grind food.
Salivary glands – produce and secrete saliva into the oral cavity.
saliva
moistens the food
contains enzymes (ptyalin or salivary amylase)
begins digestion of starch into smaller polysaccharides.
Function:
Mechanical digestion.
increasing surface area for faster chemical digestion.
The Esophagus
a tube connecting the mouth to the stomach
running through the Thoracic cavity.
Location:
lies behind windpipe (Trachea).
The trachea has as an epiglottis
preventing food from entering the windpipe,
moving the food to the esophagus while swallowing.
Food travels down the esophagus, through a series of involuntary rhythmic contractions (wave-like) called peristalsis.
Function:
The lining of the esophagus secretes mucus
lubricating
to support the movement of food.
Esophageal sphincter:
bolus reaches the stomach
must pass through a muscular ringed valve called the esophageal sphincter (Cardiac Sphincter).
Function:
prevent stomach acids from back flowing into the esophagus.
Stomach
J-shaped muscular sac
Has inner folds (rugae)
Increasing surface area of the stomach.
Function:
Stomach performs mechanical digestion
HOW By churning the bolus and mixing it with the gastric juices
secreted by the lining of the stomach.
GASTRIC JUICES HCl, salts, enzymes, water and mucus)
HCL helps break down of food and kills bacteria that came along with the food.
The bolus is now called Chyme.
Enzymes in stomach:
Acidic environment
HCl secreation
kill any microbes that are found in the bolus,
creating a pH of 2.
Mucus prevents the stomach from digesting itself.
Pepsin secreation
responsible for initiating the breakdown of proteins (in )food.
hydrolyzes proteins to yield polypeptides.
pH is 2, the enzyme from the salivary glands stops breaking down carbohydrates.
Pyloric sphincter:
chyme moves from the stomach to the small intestine.
It passes through a muscular ringed sphincter called the pyloric sphincter.
stomach does not digest itselfWhy ?
Protective Mechanism:
three protective mechanisms.
First the stomach only secretes small amounts of gastric juices until food is present.
Second the secretion of mucus coats the lining of the stomach protecting it from the gastric juices.
The third mechanism is the digestive enzyme pepsin is secreted in an inactive protein c
Biology I Presentation
FUNGI
We will learn
General characteristics of fungi
Structure of fungi
Economic Importance
Pathogenicity
Brief intro of some fungi
THE SIX KINGDOMS
Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom called the kingdom fungi
OF FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Nonphotosynthetic
Eukaryotes
Nonmotile
Most are saprobes (live on dead organisms)
The Characteristics of Fungi
Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food first & then absorb it into their bodies
Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
Store food energy as glycogen
The Characteristics of Fungi
Important decomposers & recyclers of nutrients in the environment
Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast
Lack true roots, stems or leaves
fungi as a decomposers
The Characteristics of Fungi
Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
Body is called the Thallus
Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some fungi are internal or external parasites
A few fungi act like predators & capture prey like roundworms
The Characteristics of Fungi
Some are edible, while others are poisonous
The Characteristics of Fungi
Produce both sexual and asexual spores
Classified by their sexual reproductive structures
The Characteristics of Fungi
Grow best in warm, moist environments
Mycology is the study of fungi
Mycologists study fungi
A fungicide is a chemical used to kill fungi
The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi include puffballs, yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools, rusts, smuts, ringworm, and molds
The antibiotic penicillin is made by the Penicillium mold
FUNGI SIZE
NON-REPRODUCTIVE
Vegetative Structures
Hyphae
Tubular shape
ONE continuous cell
Filled with cytoplasm & nuclei
Multinucleate
Hard cell wall of chitin also in insect exoskeletons
Hyphae
Stolons – horizontal hyphae that connect groups of hyphae to each other
Rhizoids – rootlike parts of hyphae that anchor the fungus
Hyphae
Cross-walls called SEPTA may form compartments
Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm
Form network called mycelia that run through the thallus (body)
Absorptive Heterotroph
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Tips of Hyphae release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Modifications of hyphae
Fungi may be classified based on cell division (with or without cytokinesis)
Aseptate or coenocytic (without septa)
Septate (with septa)
Modifications of hyphae
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium is an extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
ASEXUAL & SEXUAL SPORES
REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
REPRODUCTION
Most fungi reproduce Asexually and Sexually by spores
ASEXUAL reproduction is most common method & produces genetically identical organisms
Fungi reproduce SEXUALLY when conditions are poor & nutrients
The archaebacteria
group members
Rameen nadeem
Syeda iqra hussain
Hina zamir
Mahnoor khan
Maleeha inayat
Background
Biologists have long organized living things into large groups called kingdoms.
There are six of them:
Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Some recent findings…
In 1996, scientists decided to split Monera into two groups of bacteria:
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
Because these two groups of bacteria were different in many ways scientists created a new level of classification called a DOMAIN.
Now we have 3 domains
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
KingdomArchaebacteria
Any of a large group of primitive bacteria having unusual cell walls, membrane lipids, ribosomes, and RNA sequences, and having the ability to produce methane and to live in anaerobic, extremely hot, salty, or acidic conditions
The Domain Archaea
“ancient” bacteria
Some of the first archaebacteria were discovered in Yellowstone National Park’s hot springs
Prokaryotes are structurally simple, but biochemically complex
Basic Facts
They live in extreme environments (like hot springs or salty lakes) and normal environments (like soil and ocean water).
All are unicellular (each individual is only one cell).
No peptidoglycan in their cell wall.
Some have a flagella that aids in their locomotion.
Most don’t need oxygen to survive
They can produce ATP (energy) from sunlight
They can survive enormous temperature extremes
They can survive under rocks and in ocean floor vents deep below the ocean’s surface
They can tolerate huge pressure differences
STRUCTURE
Size
Archaea are slightly less than 1 micron long.
A micron is 1/1,000 of a millimeter.
In order to see their cellular features, scientists use powerful electron microscopes.
Shape
Shapes can be spherical or ball shaped and are called coccus.
Others are rod shaped, long and thin, and labeled bacillus.
Variations of cells have been discovered in square and triangular shapes.
STRUCTURE
Locomotion
Some archaea have flagella, hair-like structures that assist in movement.
There can be one or many attached to the cell's outer membrane. Protein networks can also be found on the cell membrane, which allow cells to attach themselves in groups.
Cell Features
Within the cell membrane, the archaea cell contains cytoplasm and DNA, which are in single-looped forms called plasmids.
Most archaeal cells also have a semi-rigid cell wall that helps it to maintain its shape and chemical balance.
This protects the cytoplasm, which is the semi-liquid gel that fills the cell and enables the various parts to function.
STRUCTURE
Phospholipids
The molecules that make up cell membranes are called phospholipids, which act as building blocks for the cell.
In archaea, these molecules are made of glycerol-ether lipids.
Ether Bonding
The ether bonding makes it possible for archaea to survive in environments that are extremely acidic or al
Socio-psychological impact of early marriages on females
Representated by Hina zamir
overview
Marriage
Types of marriages
Early marriage
Cause of early marriages
Impacts of early marriages amoung female
1 .psychological effect
2. social effect
What is marriage :-
According to Psychology Dictionary
Marriage(also called matrimony or wedlock)is a social construct in the form of a formal union of a man and a woman, typically recognized by law, by which they become husband and wife
According to Horton and Hunt,
“Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more persons establish a family.”
Malinowski – “Marriage as a contract for the production and maintenance of children”.
Types of marriage :-
1. Monogamy
2. Polygyny
3. Polyandry
5. Polyfidelity
6. Same sex marriage
7. Open marriage -- swinging
8. Common law marriage
9. Group marriage
10. Boston marriage
11. Levirate marriage
12. Sororate marriage.
13. Endogamy
14. Exogamy
15. "Mixed" marriage
16. Arranged marriage
17. Egalitarian marriage
18. Complementarian marriage
19. Covenant marriage
20. After Death Marriage
What is “Early marriage” ?
In accordance to Article 1 of the Convention on the Right of the Child“Early marriage refers to any marriage of a child younger than 18 years old “.
According to UNICEF (2001a:5), “early marriage refers to the practice of marriage before or during adolescence.”“a fundamental threat to human rights “
Types of early marriages
“Early marriage is arranged in a different age group.
Promissory marriage
Arranged before the birth of the child.
Child marriage
Arranged for girls under 10 years of age and the bride is placed under the custody of in-laws until she reaches puberty age.
Early adolescent marriage
Arranged for girls between ages of 10-14. The married child may stay with parents but periodically visits her parents-in-law
Late Adolescent marriage
When the bride is 15 –18 years old
Causes of early marriage :-
Poverty and economic transactions
Notions of morality and honour
Protecting ‘chastity’
Subjugation of women
Culture and Tradition
Historical Explanation
Children considered to be a “Burden”
lack of awareness about the dangers of early marriage
parents’ fear of their daughters’ being unmarriageable after the age of 14
parents’ desire to secure their daughter’s future
to strengthen ties between the marrying families for social as well as economic protection and security
parents’ desire to see their children married and settled before passing away or becoming old
Effects of early marriages :-psychological effect
depression,
anxiety
bipolar disorder
addicted to drugs, alcohol, or smoking
Pressure
Emotional blackmail
Too many responsibilities
Violence and abuse
young brides’ reduced opportunities to develop psychological and social skills necessary to make strategic decisions
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Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
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Immunology assignment
1. ASSIGMENT ON
“MALT ,GALT AND BALT “
SUBMITTED TO: SIR JAWAD
SUBMITTED BY:
HINA ZAMIR (ROLL NO 04)
6th_
SEMESTER
DATE: 22ND -FEB-2016
CENTRE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND
MICROBIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2. TOPIC: GALT, MALT and BALT
1. MALT (mucosa-associatedlymphoid tissue):
The mucosa-associated lymphoid/ lymphatic tissue (MALT) is a diffuse system of small
concentrations of uncapsulated lymphoid tissue found throughout the lamina propria. It is found
in association with mucosal tissues of the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, thyroid, breast,
lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin [1]. It may consist of a collection of lymphoid cells, or it
may include small solitary lymph nodes [2]
Histology:
MALT is populated by lymphocytes such as T cells and B cells, as well as plasma :cells and
macrophages, each of which is well situated to encounter antigens passing through the mucosal
epithelium. In the case of intestinal MALT,M cells are also present [1] having a role of
absorption, transport, processing, and presentation of antigens to subepithelial lymphoid cells[2].
MALT can appear as aggregations of immune cells roughly similar in architecture to a section of
a lymph node and may contain lymphoid follicles with germinal centers. Unlike lymph nodes,
MALT aggregations are not penetrated by lymphatic vessels and are exposed to antigens directly
from the mucosa they surround.
3. Role:MALT provides the immune system easy histological access to the organisms. Thus, it
allows the immune system to sample microbial antigens for development of adaptive immune
responses and provides a site for Plasma Cells to synthesize antibodies .
Anatomy : MALT is found in several prominent locations and the lymphoid collections at
each anatomical location are given some unique identifiers as discussed below.
Bronchial Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT): Found in Conducting Airways,
specifically in the Respiratory Lamina Propria
Gastric Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT): Found in the Stomach, specifically the
Gastric Lamina Propria
Peyer's Patches: Found in the Small Intestine, specifically the Small Intestine Lamina
Propria
Appendix: Contains abundant MALT in its lamina propria
Tonsils: Tonsils are essentially MALT found mucosa of the pharynx [3]
2. GALT( Gut associatedlymphoid tissues):
The gastrointestinal tract's immune system is often referred to as gut-associated lymphoid
tissue (or GALT) and works to protect the body from invasion. The GALT is an example
of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.It includes tonsils, appendix, adenoids and peyer’s patches
4. 2.1 Tonsils:
The tonsils are a pair of soft tissue masses located at the rear of the throat (pharynx). Each tonsil
is composed of tissue similar to lymph nodes, covered by pink mucosa (like on the adjacent
mouth lining) [4] . Lymphocytes and macrophages in the tonsils provide protection against
harmful substances and pathogens that may enter the body through the nose or mouth.[5]
Crypts: Running through the mucosa of each tonsil are pits, called crypts.
There are three groups of tonsils: Palatine tonsils ( near opening of oral cavity ) , lingual tonsils (
located on posterior surface of tongue ) and adenoids [5]
5. 2.2 Adenoid:
The adenoid, also known as a pharyngeal tonsil or nasopharyngeal tonsil, is the superior-most of
the tonsils. It is a mass of lymphatic tissue situated posterior to the nasal cavity.[6]
Waldeyerring: Both tonsils and adenoid are part of the Waldeyer ring, which is a ring of
lymphoid tissue found in the pharynx. The lymphoid tissue in this ring provides defense against
pathogens. The Waldeyer ring is involved in the production of immunoglobulins and the
development of both B cells and T cells. [7]
2.3 Appendix:
The appendix also called vermiform (worm shaped ) is a small tubular extension of the right side
of the colon.
Lymphoid tissue begins to accumulate in the appendix shortly after birth and reaches a peak
between the second and third decades of life, decreasing rapidly thereafter and practically
disappearing after the age of 60
Role: Appendix has a role in the maturation of B lymphocytes (one variety of white blood cell)
and in the production of the class of antibodies known as immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies. It
is also involved in the production of molecules that help to direct the movement of lymphocytes
to various other locations in the bod
6. The function of the appendix appears to be to expose white blood cells to the wide variety of
antigens, or foreign substances, present in the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, the appendix probably
helps to suppress potentially destructive humoral (blood- and lymph-borne) antibody responses
while promoting local immunity. The appendix--like the tiny structures called Peyer's patches in
other areas of the gastrointestinal tract--takes up antigens from the contents of the intestines and
reacts to these contents. This local immune system plays a vital role in the physiological immune
response and in the control of food, drug, microbial or viral antigens [8].
3. BALT (Bronchus-associatedlymphoid tissue):
BALT is part of the integrated mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue system. It is not present in all
species and age groups and can be classified as a tertiary lymphoid organ
Structure:
It is an accumulation of lymphoid cells with a typical localization of B lymphocytes
preferentially in a follicle and T lymphocytes, more peripherally around high endothelial venules
in the wall of bronchi.
Dome area: Another structural component is a cap-like accumulation of lymphoid cells partly
bulging into the lumen of the bronchus, called the dome area. The epithelium covering the dome
lacks goblet cells, is infiltrated by lymphocytes, and contains cells specialized for antigen
uptake-M cells [9]
7. 4. References:
1. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. (2016, January 5). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:52,February 20, 2016,from
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mucosa
associated_lymphoid_tissue&oldid=698264357
2. Santacroce L. Academic lesson; 1997. Anatomy, physiology and surgical
pathophysiology of the MALT.
3. http://pathwaymedicine.org/malt-physiology
4. www.webmd.com/oral-health/picture-of-the-tonsils
5. http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Lymphatic/Lymphatic.htm
6. Adenoid. (2016, January 9). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 11:38,
February 21, 2016,
from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adenoid&oldid=698967406
7. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1899367-overview
8. http://www.slideshare.net/pharmakingakash1/appendix-in-immunology
9. Pabst, R. and T. Tschernig, Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue: an entry site for
antigens for successful mucosal vaccinations? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 2010. 43(2): p.
137-41